ERIC EJ1015026: Border Pedagogy as a Conduit to Greater Understanding

2013·2.4 MB·English

by  ERIC

Border Pedagogy as a Conduit
to Greater
UnderstandinG
timothy g. Cashman
Introduction insight into how the U.S. invasion of Iraq settings with environs less recognizable.
and, indeed, other momentous decisions Epstein (2008) argues that comparative
Having personal connections that are
of the U.S. government impacted lives of education is an important endeavor be-
tied to current social studies issues some-
teachers and their students in Malaysia. cause through comparative education we
times provides the impetus for the develop-
Taking into consideration the re- better comprehend and gain insight into
ment of research questions. I found myself
sponse of teachers in a Muslim-majority the nature of our own education here in
in a predominantly Muslim nation during
country, I sought to compare the reac- the U.S. (p. 376). Crossley (2000) states that
the outbreak of the United States (U.S.)
tions of the teachers in Malaysia with the comparative and international education
bombings of Iraq. It was March, 2003, and
perspectives of teachers in Mexico and is a “field that has long been concerned
I was visiting my future wife’s residence
Canada so larger comparisons could be with emancipatory themes and efforts to
in Sabah, Malaysia. On March 20, 2003,
drawn. Research for the study in Mexico make a contribution to the improvement
at approximately 5:35 a.m. Baghdad time,
was conducted in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, of education in practice” (p. 329).
U.S. bombs fell on Baghdad, Iraq.
in a state that borders the U.S. The Ca- Phillips and Ochs (2004) assert that
This initial attack was followed by days
nadian sampling of teachers took place in “serious investigation of aspects of educa-
of severe bombing in Baghdad and other
eastern Ontario in two communities also tion in other countries seeks to identify
cities, coinciding with the invasion of U.S.
close to the U.S. border. what contributes to success in the hope
and British ground forces in Iraq (Brunner,
The key objective of the investiga- that lessons might be learned which could
2006). The unilateral actions were followed
tions in all three countries was to uncover have implications for policy development in
by huge protests in cities and towns across
attitudes and pedagogical comparisons of the ‘home’ context” (p. 773). In this sense, it
the U.S. and around the globe.
educators and their students regarding is important for the comparativist in all of
Before the bombing commenced, for-
recent and current U.S. policies. us to identify further with internationalist
mer Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir
perspectives.
announced his opposition to a U.S.-led war
Undertaking Comparative Education
in Iraq and would later denounce such war
Perspectives on Student Discussions
developments in several speeches before of- It should be noted that research was
ficially stepping down on October 31, 2003 completed in Malaysia and Mexico during As this study commenced, questions
from his role as Malaysia’s leader after 22 the George W. Bush presidency, whereas emerged about how educators conducted
years in office. the data were collected in Canada within and reported on their classroom discus-
As a U.S. visitor to Malaysia and Sa- the first year of the Obama administra- sions with students. Flinders (2005) argues
bah, I was concerned about how I would tion. Guiding the research in all three that when educators dismiss student con-
be received by local citizens, both Muslims cases was the desire to uncover compara- cerns, they are overlooking opportunities to
and non-Muslims. Events during the onset tive aspects of social studies educators engage students in important learning. My
of the war became a catalyst for gaining who teach about U.S. policies in their research sought to uncover the following:
respective curricula.
What perspectives do educators in three
Phillips and Schweisfurth (2006) have
countries—Sabah, Malaysia; Chihuahua,
Timothy G. Cashman is an associate professor suggested, “to some extent everyone is a
Mexico; and eastern Ontario, Canada—
in the College of Education comparativist,” and I set out to find the bring to classroom discussions of U.S.
at the University of Texas at El Paso, investigative aspects in those of us who policies, including recent U.S.-led wars
El Paso, Texas. seek to compare situations in familiar and anti-terrorism measures?
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
2
© Caddo Gap Press 2013
ComParing the PersPeCtives of eduCators

malaysia

In

mexico

canada
and
What do these educators report as salient knowledge and pedagogy that is notewor- recent courses of action. Thus, as indicated
issues for students in their classroom thy and should be shared. How can educa- earlier, I sought ultimately to uncover the
discussions? tors in the U.S. incorporate this knowledge following in Malaysia, Mexico, and Canada:
Recent research has indicated that into a standards-based curriculum that
What are the perceptions of educators
there should be more candid, open dialogue can be highly prescriptive, such as the and how do educators report on their
on the effects of recent wars in U.S. class- scope-and-sequence approach to teaching classroom discussions of U.S. policies
rooms (Davis, 2005; Flinders, 2005). Ac- social studies? By carefully considering the and, in particular, U.S.-led wars and anti-
cording to Davis (2005), American students perspectives of educators in our neighbor- terrorism measures?
do not engage in discussions of recent wars ing countries this research seeks to provide
as much as they should. Moreover, Davis additional insight for teaching about major Theoretical Framework
maintains that “the school curriculum ap- U.S. policies, such as the wars in Iraq and The dynamics of what occurs in trans-
pears to be especially mute about this [the Afghanistan and the “War on Terrorism.” national classrooms can be considered
Iraq] war” (2005, p. 186). For the purposes Indeed, some of these perspectives through the lenses of border pedagogy.
of this study, I searched for perspectives are needed as a means to fill the informa- Giroux (1991) suggests that border peda-
that may have been lacking in the U.S. tion void that has resulted from selective gogy teaches students the skills of critical
school curriculum. mainstream media censorship of view- thinking, through debating power, meaning,
points about war and terrorism that are
and identity. The goals of transformative
Purpose of the Study presented to U.S. student audiences. education are embedded within the dis-
The following specific questions guided
courses of border pedagagy (Garza, 2007;
Educators were interviewed and sur- this research in the three countries:
Giroux, 1991; Romo & Chavez, 2006).
veyed in Malaysia, Mexico, and Canada to
1. How much time is devoted to the According to Romo and Chavez (2006)
better understand discourses with regard
discussion of U.S. policies? border pedagogy encourages tolerance,
to U.S. international policies in schools in
ethical sophistication, and openness. Bor-
those three countries. My purpose was to 2. How much open discourse exists in
der pedagogy particularly engages learn-
provide additional comparative insight to classrooms?
ers in “multiple references that constitute
those who educate about similar issues in
3. What, if any, ideological differences different cultural codes, experiences, and
U.S. classrooms. are evident in classrooms during their
languages to help them construct their
Among the problems to be addressed discussions that included U.S. policies?
own narratives and histories, and revise
were: How is the U.S. curriculum en-
4. How have discussions of U.S. policies democracy through sociocultural negotia-
hanced through understandings of border
changed over recent years? tion” (p. 143).
pedagogy and transnational, compara-
Border pedagogy has implications
tive studies? Also, given the constraints 5. Why should others, and particularly
placed on many U.S. educators today by Americans, be informed of perspectives
in another country’s social studies
the demands of high stakes testing, how Photographs appearing with this
classrooms?
can I impress upon others the validity article were taken in 2013 at the
of perspectives from transnational and This study seeks to provide additional U.S.-Mexico border by Timothy
comparative studies? insight about the impact of U.S. inter- G. Cashman.
Malaysian, Mexican, and Canadian national policies, including our nation’s
educators have an immense amount of
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for curricula in locales outside the border Another stated educational goal in social disciplines. In Mexico, the process
itself. Comparisons, contrasts, and reflec- Malaysia is the development of individuals of nation-building and construction of na-
tions on transnational education help who will “live harmoniously with others tional identity remains a firm imperative,
provide multifaceted learning. Garza (2007) in society and who can contribute toward especially as the shadow of the powerful
found that educators developed mutual enhancing the quality of family life, society, U.S. neighbor looms large (Levinson, 1998).
understandings after considering border and the nation” (Nasir, 2004). Officially, Mexico considers itself pluricultural
pedagogies. Moreover, teachers and admin- national unity is to be promoted through a because of its “distinct peoples, cultures,
istrators discovered that they could inform common curriculum, the Malay language, communities, and groups that share rights
and strengthen each other’s educational and the national examination system. and obligations common to economic,
practices through transnational, border Malaysian education is also expected political, and educational life, in spite of
engagement (Garza, 2007). to assist the authorities in countering any cultural, ethnic, and linguistic distinctions”
threats of terrorism (Nasir, 2004). To this (Morales & Caballero, 2002, p. 55).
Education in Malaysia, end the Malaysian central government has The indigenous population in Mexico
Mexico, and Canada sought to more strictly control the curricu- believes that beyond this government
lum of Islamic religious schools—known as rhetoric there should be respect for cul-
Educators perform their responsi- madrasa (Teo, 2004). tural diversity that also eradicates various
bilities under unique conditions that are, forms of discrimination and social inequal-
in turn, influenced by each respective Education in Mexico ity. There is a call for a new indigenous
country’s historical background, sociocul- education that recognizes “universal
In Mexico, the national Secretary of
tural conditions, and government policies. philosophical and scientific principles, and
Education (SEP) oversaw changes in the
These circumstances influence the present at the same time, bases itself on its own
curriculum during the 1960s and 1970s so
day curriculum, and, in some cases, place historical traditions and knowledge, for
that students could take a more active role
constraints on the discourses that take example, teaching in the mother tongue”
in learning (Erickson, 2003). Pedagogy was
place in classrooms. (Morales & Caballero, 2002, p. 56).
introduced that promoted more creativity,
scientific inquiry, and critical thinking.
Education in Malaysia Education in Canada
The government has continued to promote
In Malaysia, education is the social modernization in education, including edu- Canadian educational policy, according
institution that serves as the primary cational technologies; yet many broad goals to Davies and Issitt (2005), is determined
vehicle for upward mobility. Parents there remain unattained and adequate funding at the provincial level, resulting in diverse
spend relatively huge sums of money and is needed (Rippberger & Staudt, 2003). policies throughout Canada. Additionally,
sacrifice their own comforts in order to A key responsibility of the office of the these authors state that any social educa-
ensure their children are well educated. SEP is to promote a sense of national iden- tion in Canada has being marginalized
The government’s stated philosophy of tity and patriotism (Erickson, 2003). Mexi- within the greater educational context.
education is to produce a well-rounded can basic education is intended to provide With regard to classrooms discussions of
Malaysian who is intellectually, spiritu- students with fundamental knowledge and Canadian relations with the U.S., Osborne
ally, emotionally, and physically balanced. intellectual abilities (Sistema Educativo (2003) asserts that Canadian students may
Schools are directed to place an emphasis de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 2004). comprehend more about U.S. historical and
on respecting others’ needs and require- Accordingly, a main goal of public schools political figures than they do of their own
ments in Malaysia’s multiethnic and is to promote a sense of conscience in Canadian historical and political figures.
multicultural society. Earl (2006) notes divergent Canadian
perspectives of the U.S. in Canadian society
overall. The George W. Bush administra-
tion was mistrusted and immensely un-
popular among a majority of the Canadian
public (Ek, 2009). Obama’s election as U.S.
president in 2008 offered an opportunity
for the strengthening of U.S. and Canada
relations (Ek, 2009).
Attention to Prevailing Conditions
Thus, I was faced with the effects of
distinct histories, sociocultural and socio-
economic contexts, and policymakers in
each of the countries surveyed. What
needed to be considered were the prevail-
ing conditions for teaching about U.S. poli-
cies in the curricula of Malaysia, Mexico,
and Canada.
Methodology
For the research conducted in Sabah,
Malaysia, I interviewed and surveyed
teachers who taught ages 15-to-18 in either
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
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social studies courses at secondary and conditions relevant to such phenomena Sabah school administrators assisted
preparatory schools or “General Knowl- (Yin, 2003). me in setting up appointments, observa-
edge,” a required interdisciplinary national For trustworthiness, interpretations tions, interviews, and informal discus-
curriculum course at first-year Malaysian of the data were clarified by paraphrasing sions. A local educator native speaker was
higher education institutes. or restating what I believed to be the in- enlisted to translate interview questions
In Chihuahua, Mexico, I interviewed tended positions and replies and verifying and responses from Malay to English.
teachers and administrators at two school the interpretations were reflective of the
sites, including middle level educators at participants’ true sentiments in the re- Data Collection in Mexico
one school site and participants at a sepa- sponses, either in direct conversation with
In Chihuahua, Mexico, face-to-face in-
rate secondary school site. the interviewees or through online com-
terviews and focus group discussions were
For the Canadian comparative edu- munications. I also tested counterexamples
conducted with 25 social studies teachers
cation component of this study, ten sec- of major themes to ensure interpretations
and school administrators at two school
ondary social studies teachers in three were trustworthy (Maxwell, 2010).
sites. I was assisted by native Chihuahuans
secondary schools in two Eastern Ontario The key categories of data that
who helped me gain a level of trust and sug-
communities volunteered to be surveyed emerged were as follows:
gested delaying direct questions until more
and interviewed.
1. Curriculum emphasis; informal questions regarding the person’s
My research methodologies followed
birthplace, interests, number of years in
Stake’s (2000) model for a substantive case 2. U. S. international policies; and
the teaching profession, attitudes toward
study. Accordingly, I reflected on impres-
3. Comparative perspectives of govern- the profession, and other trust-building
sions, data, records, and salient elements
ment and society. discourse had been established.
at the observed sites. Open-ended questions
Trust proved to be an essential variable
were asked with regard to the research Data Collection in Malaysia as far as gaining access to the true feelings
problem. Data were subsequently collected,
In Malaysia I selected teachers who of the participants. Interviews and focus
noted for frequency, and categorized.
worked with young adults aged 15-18 in group discussions were conducted in Span-
The next step was to develop interpre-
either social studies courses or General ish, and a doctoral student who was present
tive explanations of observations, inter-
Knowledge, a required interdisciplinary assisted with the translation of both verbal
views, and archives (Creswell, 2007). Data
national curriculum course. Personal in- and non-verbal communications.
analysis followed what Glesne (2011) refers
terviews and follow-up communications
to as thematic analysis, whereby the data
were conducted with nine educators who Data Collection in Canada
were read many times in search of emerg-
ing themes or categories and subcategories. represented Malay, Chinese, Iban, Sino- The research in Ontario, Canada
This also corresponds with Creswell’s (2007) Kadazan, Kadazan-Dusun, and Indian cul- focused on 10 secondary level teacher par-
description of the data analysis spiral, tures. After initial face-to-face interviews ticipants and their reporting of classroom
wherein the analysis process is iterative, over the period of a month, subsequent discussions. The respondents included nine
including multiple coding phases. surveys and interviews were conducted via males and one female. Categories of analy-
For analysis of the overall case study, e-mail and telephone during the following sis emerged from initial online communi-
I took into consideration the recommen- six months. cations, face-to-face interviews, follow-up
dations of Yin (2003) for considering local Two interviewees responded in Malay. online communications, and informal obser-
meanings and foreshadowed meanings in Fluent Malay speakers translated and vations with the 10 teacher participants. All
their context. The work was highly reflec- interpreted the responses of these Malay- communications with the Ontario teachers
tive, with border pedagogy (Giroux, 1991) language respondents. The remaining were conducted in English.
seven participants communicated in Eng-
as a framework for uncovering contextual
lish (see Table 1).
Results
Table 1 Curriculum Emphasis
Sabah, Malaysia, Participants’ Demographics or Characteristics
In Malaysia, Mexico, and Canada
Variable/ Factor Levels/Conditions N % instructional modes and time allotted to
discussions of U.S. policies varied in terms
Gender Male 4 44
Female 5 56 of localized pedagogy. Malaysian teachers
noted that they discussed the U.S.-led
Position Teacher 9 100
conflicts in Iraq in their courses anywhere
Teaching grade level Social Studies, High School (Form 3, 4, 5) 6 67 from “approximately three to four times a
General Knowledge, High School (Form 6) 3 33 month, especially during the Malay Lan-
guage course” to facilitate dialogue about
Ethnic background Malay 3 33
the impact of the ongoing war during
Kadazan-Dusun 2 22
Chinese 1 11 almost every class meeting.
Sino-Kadazan 1 11 Mexican educators reported vari-
Indian 1 11 able amounts of time spent in classroom
Iban 1 11 discussions of U.S. international affairs.
They reported that many of students had
Religion Muslim 4 44
Christian 3 33 lived in the U.S. at some point. Invariably,
Buddhist 1 11 when democratic systems were discussed,
Hindu 1 11 students offered their perspectives on poli-
cies of the U.S., largely based on their own
N=Number of Participants
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personal experiences or family members’ when provided the opportunity. Some U.S. International Policies
experiences and accounts. educators noted that the curriculum as on War and Terrorism
Canadian participants maintained it related to Mexico was addressed first,
All of the educators from Sabah,
that the extent of discussions on U.S. inter- and dialogue on U.S. policies took place
Malaysia, put forth that their students
national policies depended, in large part, after the formal curriculum had been
were against terrorism itself. Yet, the
on the provincial curriculum. Nonetheless, addressed. Nonetheless, teachers felt
same teachers indicated that a majority
it was pointed out that considerable time comparative history and social studies
of Malaysian students disagreed with the
(20% or more) in courses such as Geogra- were vital for students, regardless of the
George W. Bush administration’s stance
phy, World Issues, and Canadian and In- curriculum. One educator emphasized
toward Muslim countries. One teacher
ternational Law was devoted to discourses that a key objective in her teaching is to
observed:
on U.S. policies, especially comparative have students develop understandings
Canadian and U.S. discussions. Moreover, of interrelationships and international We debated on the purpose of the war
a one semester course on U.S. History was connections. Therefore, most discussions in Iraq. Students said it’s just for the oil
and money, and that Bush wants to be the
a popular elective (See Table 2). centered around Mexico first, but many
police for the world.
Malaysian educators stated that they discussions included U.S. affairs due to
facilitated open question-and-answer inter-connectedness with U.S. policies. Students, reportedly, concurred with
sessions or informal discussions on the As there was considerable room for former Prime Minister Mahathir’s tough
U.S. involvement in international issues, comparisons between Canada and the stance against terrorism, but they ex-
including the wars in Iraq and Afghani- U.S. in the Ontario, Canada, curriculum, pressed their opinions that the U.S. govern-
stan. One Malaysian educator noted that classroom dialogue included some discus- ment was guilty of violating international
such topics could not be broached unless sion of U.S. policies. Ontario educators also laws through its unilateral actions.
the international issues appeared in the compared U.S. and Canadian domestic Other Sabahan educators reported that
official syllabus. policies and laws. For example, teachers their students were increasingly frustrated
Administrators and teachers in Chi- reported that considerable time was spent with the seemingly endless U.S. conflicts.
huahua, Mexico, reported that students discussing the differences between the U.S. Study participanmts offered that most stu-
were engaged in discussions of the U.S. and Canadian health care systems. dents felt American policies towards Islamic
Table 2
Number of Participants and Frequency of Responses
Malaysia Participants Frequency
1. Open-ended question-and-answer sessions or informal discussions on the U. S. involvement in international issues were facilitated. 9 9
2. Students were actively engaged in discussions on the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. 9 6
3. Students were against terrorism itself. 9 9
4. A majority of Malaysian students disagreed with the Bush administration’s stances toward Muslim countries. 9 9
5. Students felt that U. S. policies towards Islamic countries are biased and designed to serve self-interests. 9 6
6. Students argued that U. S. government was guilty of violating international laws with its unilateral actions. 9 6
Chihuahua, Mexico
1. Mexico’s national curriculum had to be addressed first; dialogue on U. S. policies took place after the formal curriculum had been addressed. 25 17
2. Classroom discussions centered on students’ feelings of family members residing and working in the U. S. 25 25
3. Student learning was enhanced when students were engaged in the discussion of U. S. policies. 25 25
4. Most students wanted an end to violence and felt that the War in Iraq was a war of “expansion and imperialism.” 25 25
5. Educators observed what they termed as superstitions and fatalism in students’ explanations for strife in the U. S. 25 7
6. Students’ first impulses were to generalize with regard to U. S. policies. 25 3
Ontario, Canada
1. The extent of discussions depended on the provincial curriculum. 10 10
2. Considerable time was spent discussing differences between the U. S. and Canadian health care systems. 10 9
3. Teachers noted an overwhelming lack of support for the War in Iraq; support for the War in Afghanistan was originally strong but has
since waned. 10 9
4. Teachers stated that students discuss the effects of international trade and NAFTA, including local factory closings because of the
decisions of U. S.-based multinational mega-corporations. 10 8
5. Teachers discussed recent U. S. and Canada treaty issues. 10 9
6. Students ask questions about the level of crime and violence in the U. S. 10 5
7. Canadian students are eager to discuss the reasons for Americans’ lack of understanding of Canadian history, geography, and economics. 10 10
8. Educators discussed their concerns of the polarizing crescendo in U. S. “dirty” politics and possible spill-over effects on their politics. 10 7
9. Students resented the portrayal of Canadians in the U. S. media and textbooks. 10 9
10. Students revealed a strong familiarity with U. S. media and pop culture. 10 10
11. Canadian teachers reserved the right to critique U. S. government policies. 10 10
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
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countries were biased and “lopsided for the government positions promoted in the U.S. members had experienced firsthand while
U.S.’ best self-interests.” itself. Teachers in Eastern Ontario noted living in the U.S.
A key point of contention was that the that discussions reflected an overwhelming Themes of globalization, roles of the
U.S. government had overlooked the under- lack of support for the War in Iraq, while U.S. media and pop culture, and compari-
lying causes of terrorism. Accordingly, one support for the War in Afghanistan was sons and contrasts of Canadian and U.S.
Sabahan teacher noted: originally strong but waned as the death internal and domestic policies emerged
toll among Canadian soldiers increased. during interviews with teachers from On-
The war on terrorism is a must, but the
tario, Canada. These teachers stated that
most important thing to do is tackle the
Comparative Perspectives students and members of their communities
roots of terrorism. The students have
mixed feelings on terrorism; some feel that of Government and Society discuss the effects of international trade
terrorism happened because the people and NAFTA, specifically, and observe in
Malaysian educators put forth that
involved are not satisfied with certain their local communities the loss of assembly
their discussions centered on the pos-
issues in order to attract people’s attention line and industrial employment, includ-
sibilities of Malaysia’s recent economic
seriously. America works very hard to curb ing numerous factory closings because of
terrorism but they still let other countries development and long-term stability be-
the decisions of U.S.-based multinational
terrorize freely. ing threatened by American military acts.
mega-corporations. These educators also
Moderate and pro-Western predominantly
Educators in Chihuahua, Mexico, re- discussed recent U.S. and Canada treaty
Muslim nations have long been essential to
marked that some of their students’ first issues, such as the opening of the Northwest
the stability of world economics. Malaysia,
impulses were to generalize; they reported Passage in the Arctic Sea for petroleum ex-
as a rapidly developing moderate-Muslim
there were students who simply stated ploration, which Canada ardently opposes.
majority country, has been a beacon of
that the U.S. makes decisions based on The Canadian teachers also devoted
economic success in Southeast Asia since
its oil-driven politics. Yet, some students considerable time discussing differences in
the early 1980s.
asked poignant questions during classroom the Canadian and U.S. health care systems.
In Chihuahua, classroom discussions
discussions. Accordingly, students sought A commonly expressed sentiment was,
centered around the U.S. projecting itself
answers to questions such as the following: “Why is the current debate even taking
as a model for racial equality, as a leader
place in the U.S.?” Participants suggested
What about the U.S. and the killing of in addressing issues of pollution and
that while the Canadian health care sys-
children and innocent people in Iraq? global warming, and at the forefront in di-
tem has inherent problems, the shortcom-
saster preparedness and relief. However,
Why doesn’t the U.S. spend money on ings are not nearly as dire as portrayed
educators readily noted that students
other causes (besides war), such as hunger in the U.S. media and by opponents of
in Africa? perceived a wide scope of hypocrisy within
government-supported health care.
American society, such as individuals of
Why are there such differences in pay The educators posited that universal
minority backgrounds being valued for
from multinational corporations in health care is considered a “given” in
their athleticism rather than other poten-
Mexico as compared to the U.S. (for the Canada, and younger Canadians take the
tial contributions to society, the U. S. as
same work)? system for granted. After all, based on a
a perpetrator of carboniferous emissions
After the September 11th attacks, and its present refusal to abide by the nationwide survey in Canada, the Cana-
Mexican students were heavily influenced Kyoto Accords, and the lack of assistance dian Broadcasting System named Tommy
by the events that unfolded on television. for the victims of Hurricane Katrina. Douglas, who has been given credit for
Many expressed their sorrow for the vic- There were also concerns over discrimi- being the “Father of the Canadian Health
tims of the terrorist attacks in the U.S. nation in the U.S., which was something System,” as the most famous Canadian in
At the time, most students had not yet Mexican students, themselves, or family history.
contemplated the historical events that
led to the terrorist attacks. More recently,
many of the same individuals’ attitudes
had changed; some viewed the American
empire as “a modern-day Rome,” with
many of the same problems and pressures.
Some Mexican students resented the fact
that the economic demands of the U.S. “af-
fect everyone else in the world.”
Although Chihuahuan educators
observed that students expressed their
disapproval of terrorism, many students
also argued that the U.S. is in a position
to have continuing terrorist problems be-
cause of its policies. Classroom discussions
centered on nationalism, religion, and
power struggles as root causes of terrorism.
Teachers and administrators indicated
that students learned to compare, analyze,
and reflect when such discussions were
incorporated in the school curriculum.
Canadian perspectives and classroom
discussions were in contrast with U.S.
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7
Canadian educators reported that on Canadian society, in general, given the 4. International perspectives of U.S.
their students questioned and often re- close proximity of the U.S. border. society and societal issues.
sented the portrayal of Canadians in the
5. Crime, including white collar corruption,
U.S. media and textbooks. In particular, Discussion and violence.
the portrayal of Canada’s war engagement
The lenses of border pedagogy provide 6. Critiques of the mainstream media and
in U.S. textbooks, both historically and in
that transnational, comparative studies can pop culture.
the present, drew the ire of educators and
be used to promote academic achievement.
their students. As Giroux (1991) noted, border peda-
Broader academic achievement implies suc-
There were open concerns among gogy works to “further create borderlands
cessful life-long learning experiences and
teacher participants in Canada about the in which the diverse cultural resources
knowledge development that will surpass
escalating and polarizing crescendo of allow for the fashioning of new identities
achievement associated with doing well on
“dirty” politics in the U.S., including an within existing configurations of power (p.
standardized tests.
apprehension that such campaigns and 28).” According to Romo and Chavez (2006),
Hahn (2001) recommends paying more
elections could have a spill-over effect on border pedagogy
attention to democratic discourse, decision
Canadian politics. Some educators argued
making, and civic action in the curriculum. . . . works to decolonize and revitalize
that there was already plenty of evidence
Students should feel empowered to have a learning and teaching and engages
of copy-cat tactics being employed in the
students in multiple references that
voice as part of a democracy that is “con-
historically more reserved Canadian ver- constitute different cultural codes,
tinuously expanded into a world of new
sion of politics. experiences, and languages to help
possibilities and opportunities for keeping
Teachers also reported that students them construct their own narratives and
engaged in debates on the differences justice and hope alive” (Giroux, 2009, p. 18). histories, and revise democracy through
between U. S. multiculturalism versus Ca- Students must be challenged by exploring sociocultural negotiation. (p.143)
transnational issues and making informed
nadian multiculturalism. Educators were In this study, Malaysian, Mexican,
decisions with regard to those issues.
quick to point out that racism exists in both and Canadian teachers and administra-
Hahn (2001) also encourages promoting
countries, but the different histories and tors expressed a desire to augment better
dialogue with colleagues cross-nationally.
laws of each country have led to variances understandings of life beyond their own
Moreover, educators should better prepare
in racism found in locales and regions of domestic borders. They recommended
students “for their roles as knowledgeable,
each country. more critical self-assessments of their own
caring, and effective civic actors in pluralis-
Another key topic was the level of educational systems, and argued that all
tic democracies in a globally interdependent
crime and violence in the U. S. as com- educational systems benefit from educa-
world” (Hahn, 2001, p. 21).
pared to Canada and other economically tional interchanges.
Teachers and their students need
developed countries. Discussions centered Some teachers noted that their stu-
to engage in effective dialogue on policy
on the history of the U.S. versus other dents learned about themselves by studying
issues facing the U.S. To better promote
countries, and how cultural norms vary other cultures in depth. U.S. educators, in
transnational understandings, the cur-
in the two neighboring nations. Teachers turn, can assist their students to reflect
riculum in U.S. schools should include
reported students contended that a cul- on their personal knowledge bases and
significant and reasonable discussions
ture of violence has existed and developed their nation’s international policies by
on the effects of U. S. actions globally. For
within the U.S., particularly with respect drawing comparisons with other societal
example, on the basis of my findings in this
to gun violence. Furthermore, discussions perspectives. Research has indicated that
study, students can and should engage in
took place on how that culture of violence without educational intervention adoles-
comparative discourses on the following
affects Canada now and potentially in the cents tend to simply reflect opinions held
topics:
future. by their own society (Garatti & Rudnitski,
Ontario teachers noted a strong famil- 1. The legality of wars. 2007). Moreover, discussions of the overall
iarity and awareness of the U.S. media and effects of U.S. decision-making and inter-
2. Treaty issues.
pop culture. They mentioned the effects of national policies in American classrooms
U.S. pop culture, both on their students and 3. Immigration policies. can further students’ self-knowledge,
perspective-taking, critical thinking, and
moral reasoning (Flinders, 2005).
Discourse in U.S. schools should
include significant and reasonable discus-
sions on the effects of U.S. actions glob-
ally. It is a fundamental imperative that
times of conflict provide opportunities for
contemplating the perspectives of others,
especially those not directly engaged in the
violence (Bender, 2002). Americans should
learn of the sentiments of educators and
students in other nations to provide a more
complete picture of how unilateral actions
of the U. S. government create chain reac-
tions worldwide.
America’s unilateral decision-making
is, and should be, continually challenged
(Young, 2002). As Bigelow (2006, p. 605)
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
8
argues, “We need to have the courage to http://dennisearl.spaces.live.com/blog/ in addressing terrorism. Paper presented
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tive Education, 44(4), 373-386. A Canadian debate. Journal of Curriculum
Conclusion
Erickson, R. J. (2002). Foundations of the Mexi- Studies, 35(5), 585-626.
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The findings of this study indicate that
House, 75(3). 146-150. policy borrowing: Some methodological
U.S. educators can learn from the narra-
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