ERIC EJ1013646: Emotions or Science? Pre-Tertiary Males' Accounts of Psychology as a Subject Choice

2013·0.08 MB·English

by  ERIC

Emotions or Science? Pre-tertiary males’
accounts of psychology as a subject choice
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
It is well established that the number of males studying psychology in the UK, both at A-level and on degree
courses, is disproportionately low compared to females. There is a paucity of research, however, which discusses
how psychology is viewed by this group. The present study employed focus groups with 35 pre-tertiary males
(some of whom were studying psychology and some of whom were not) to discuss their perceptions of the
discipline in terms of its scientific status and gendered associations with females. A thematic analysis revealed
that participants positioned psychology as ‘a sort’ of science, with a diverse subject base, much of which was
not considered appropriate or relevant for males to study. The implications of this are discussed in terms of
the inherent challenges it reveals in attracting men to study psychology, debating what could be done to make
the discipline more appealing to males.
Keywords:Males; studying psychology; pre-tertiary; subject choice.
O
VER THE PAST TWO DECADES (Smith, 2011). Estimates of ratios in HE
psychology has established itself as a show females outnumbering males by four-
popular discipline within the UK in to-one on psychology courses (HESA 2005,
both pre-tertiary, further education colleges Sanders et al., 2009). Trapp et al.’s (2011)
and higher education. A rapid increase in comments below suggest that this trend
numbers of students studying it illustrates might also be growing further (though it
continued appeal and growth; for example, should be noted that they do not qualify the
Trapp et al. (2011) map Higher Education timescale covered by the term ‘recent
Statistic Agency (HESA) data for the total years’).
number of psychology students in the UK ‘There is some indication that the proportion of
between 1998 and 2009. Comparison of males to females is altering, with more female
these two time points reveal that in 1998/9 students entering psychology programmes
there were 37,584 students whilst in 2008/9 compared to previous years.’ (Trapp et al.,
the number had risen to 77,530. Such 2011, p.19)
numbers also represent a strong profile This imbalance is not exclusively a UK
when compared to other discipline areas. phenomenon, but has also been observed in
The QAA benchmark for psychology other countries where psychology is popular
published in 2007 described it as ‘…one of (Harton & Lyons, 2003).
the most popular subjects in HE in the UK.
It is the largest scientific discipline and the How is psychology positioned?
second largest discipline overall’ (p.1). Psychology is categorised as a science cate-
Whilst writing in 2011, Trapp et al. noted gory by HESA, which ranked it as one of the
that intake onto psychology degrees was only most popular science based subjects in the
being surpassed by students studying law and UK during 2009/10. During that year only
business. nursing and computer sciences attracted
However, it would be perilous to take higher numbers of students. Its scientific
such figures at face value, for they mask a status is also highlighted by the fact that it is
wide gender divide. Of the 54,940 students listed as a STEM subject (science, tech-
sitting the A-level psychology examination in nology, engineering and mathematic). The
the UK in 2010, only 14,802 were male UK government is presently encouraging
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No 1, Spring 2013 9
© The British Psychological Society
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
individuals to train in STEM areas, as there is it may be less easily labeled as either male or
a shortage of STEM trained professionals. female; however, studies such as Sanders et
There is also a stark gender divide amongst al. (2009) and statistics relating to the
those who study such areas (typically with number of females electing to study it,
females being under represented). Interna- suggest that psychology is being viewed as a
tionally research reveals that women are subject which has more appeal to women.
disproportionally represented in science, The way in which the discipline is viewed
engineering and technology (Lynch & both by those studying it, the general public
Nowosenetz, 2009). Psychology, in having and even academics themselves has long
scientific status, is, therefore, in an unusual been of concern (e.g. Furnham, 1983; Janda
position when one considers the direction of et al., 1998; Lilienfeld, 2012; Trapp et al.,
its gender divide. Given that males display a 2011). It is not just an issue which is relevant
preference for science subjects (Miller et al., to UK psychology; in 1997 the American
2006), it might be expected that there would Psychological Society, in response to a
be a higher representation of male students growing number of studies which had
on psychology degree courses. The figures revealed that the general public had little
cited clearly illustrate this is not the case. understanding of what psychology was, and
The way that psychology is positioned within sometimes negative views of the role of
some academic circles and by policy makers psychologists, began a public awareness
could be at odds with perceptions held by campaign to highlight the value of the work
those outside of such circles (especially conducted by psychologists (Farberman,
males). 1997). A year later Janda et al. (1998)
Sanders et al. (2009) whilst exploring published findings from two studies which
male first-year undergraduates’ perceptions sought to determine how the general public
of their psychology course found that they and those who worked within academia
labeled it as ‘a girl’s subject’. Participants perceived psychology. Both sample groups
attributed this partly to the fact that it was rated medicine, chemistry, physics and
seen as a subject about feelings and biology as having made more important
emotions. Anyone knowledgeable about the contributions to society than sociology and
undergraduate psychology syllabus might psychology. The latter two subject areas were
dismiss this as a misrepresentation, but it also perceived as requiring less expertise
could offer one explanation of why male than the others listed. In this instance it
students are under-represented in seemed that both the general public and
psychology. Psychology is a multi-faceted those involved in academia held more
subject incorporating a number of strands, favourable impressions of the ‘hard’ sciences
which may be seen as differing in their than the ‘softer’ ones such as psychology.
gendered associations. For example, statis- The authors debated whether respondents
tics more closely resembles mathematics and who took part in their surveys were basing
cognitive science can be linked in character their views on stereotypes of disciplines
to computing, all of which typically enrol rather than any knowledge of the subject
more males than females (HESA, 2005; content they may have.
Kenway & Gough, 1998; Miliszewska et al., Holmes and Beins (2009) asked 201
2006; Nosek et al., 2002). In contrast we psychology undergraduates to complete
might argue that social psychology and scales to assess their scientific literacy and
developmental psychology could be aligned found that over time as the number of
more with subjects allied to medicine or psychology modules studied increased there
biological sciences and social studies, which was a corresponding increase in their scien-
have a higher proportion of female students. tific knowledge. However, a similar trend was
This diversity within psychology suggests that not revealed from scores based on
10 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013
Emotions or Science?
Friedrich’s (1996) ‘Psychology as a Science’ Method
scale. Despite having gained more scientific Design
knowledge, participants were no more likely Focus groups were used for data collection
to rate psychology as a science. in order to encourage discussions on specific
A consensus on how psychology is posi- topic areas to emerge by building on the
tioned remains, it seems, elusive. Specula- responses of contributors. As Wilkinson
tion about its status as a science continues to (2008) notes, this can frequently lead to
generate debate amongst contemporary more elaborated accounts than are typically
authors. Lilienfeld (2012) notes that the generated in individual interviews. A focus
public’s skepticism about psychology’s scien- group questioning route was designed
tific status can be attributed to some degree specifically for this project, based on the
to cognitive errors (e.g. hindsight bias) and guidelines of Kreugar and Casey (2009). The
a misunderstanding of the nature of psycho- structure was facilitated by dividing the ques-
logical science. Perhaps more damning is the tions into four sections.
work of Brock (2011) who contends that it is 1. An introductory section – where the
a myth that modern day psychology consti- purpose of the study was outlined and
tutes mature science. participants were asked to give their
Two themes seem to be emerging here: names and consent to taking part.
the first relates to a mismatch between how 2. A key question section – comprising three
psychology is categorised and how it is key areas of questioning around: choice
perceived. Although it can be labelled as a of subjects, how subject areas in general
STEM subject, evidence suggests that it is not are perceived and perceptions of
viewed on a par, in terms of its scientific psychology.
status, with other disciplines which come 3. Ending questions – having gathered their
under that umbrella. The second theme perceptions about the discipline, these
reveals that in common with other STEM questions informed them of some facts
subjects there is a gender divide in about psychology being a science subject
psychology. Psychology represents an excep- and more popular with females – their
tion here though with a trend in the oppo- views on this were then elicited.
site direction of attracting fewer men. Based 4. A closing question – asking if participant
on these two issues it seems a fruitful line of wished to add anything else and to
enquiry to try and establish how males them- provide the opportunity to ask any
selves view the discipline in order to discover questions about the study.
why it might be that the subject does not Questions and possible prompts were
appeal to them. Lynch and Nowosenetz provided for each section, though these were
(2009) note that there is a paucity of used flexibly to allow for any participant-led
research exploring how those involved in discussions to be pursued if considered rele-
science subjects talk about their construc- vant to the study’s aims. Both questioning
tions of gender. Therefore, the purpose of routes comprised the same sections and
this study was to engage in a qualitative questions apart from the key question about
enquiry to explore how pre-tertiary males perceptions of psychology. For those not
position psychology. Specifically the research studying the subject their accounts of why
questions which drove the analysis were: they had not taken psychology were
How do males perceive the subject area in explored. Those who were studying
relation to any gendered associations? and psychology were asked about their percep-
How do males view psychology in relation to tions before taking the subject and if these
its status as a science? had changed in any way.
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 11
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
Participants A second member of the research team read
Thirty-five participants were purposively the proto-themes and illustrative extracts at
sampled from males in their A2 year of this stage to check that they were a fair repre-
A-level study. Seventeen were studying sentation of the interviews. The two
psychology as one of their A-level topics, researchers then discussed the proto-themes
whilst the remaining 18 were non-psychology and their own accounts of the key ideas
A-level students. They were drawn from which were beginning to emerge in relation
three different locations: a comprehensive to the research aims. Researcher one then
school in South Glamorgan, a further educa- returned to the data, re-reading the cate-
tion college in the West Midlands and a gorised verbatim quotes. At this stage the
comprehensive school in Gloucestershire. proto-themes were refined and actual theme
In each centre two groups were identified by labels were assigned to the data. This was
a member of staff who had initially been done concurrently whilst writing descriptions
contacted by the researcher. Information of each theme and commentaries about the
about their ages was not collected, but those illustrative and supporting extracts. Finally a
in schools would have been either 18 or 19 draft version of the themes and their
years of age. commentaries was read by the second
researcher to check their authenticity.
Procedure
Prior to commencing the data collection the Findings
study was approved by the ethics panel at the This research is based on the findings from a
university where the first author works. The larger Higher Education Academy (HEA)
focus groups took place in a room in the funded project entitled ‘Exploring the roots
school or college where the participants of male (dis)engagement in psychology’
studied at a time which was deemed conven- (Mercer et al., 2011, the full report of which
ient by the member of staff organising the can be found on the archived HEA
sessions. The size of the groups ranged Psychology network website). Five themes
between four and seven participants, and were identified within that; however, for the
comprised either those studying psychology purposes of this article two will be discussed
or non-psychology participants. Audio in depth: Gendered accounts of discipline areas
recordings were taken of each interview, and Psychology as ‘a sort’ of science. In accor-
which lasted between 20 and 40 minutes. dance with the aims of the present paper
Once collected the data was transcribed they provide insight into how participants
using a professional transcription service. position the discipline in terms of both its
scientific status and any perceived gendered
Method of analysis associations.
The data was analysed using an inductive Themes are outlined below, and
thematic analysis (Hayes, 2000). Transcripts supported by verbatim quotes from partici-
were downloaded into NVivo 9 to help pants. Quotes appear in italics, with a new
organise the files and process of analysis. line indicating when a different person
Initially the transcripts were read a number spoke. The facilitator’s comments and ques-
of times, noting any common ideas which tions appear in bold italicfont. The different
seemed present in the males’ narratives. groups can be identified by a coding of
These were placed into broad categories, either A2 (for those studying psychology), or
described by Hayes (2000) as proto-themes. NP (which represents the non-psychology
Proto-themes are emerging themes which groups).
will evolve and change as analysis continues.
Initial definitions of each were written,
supported by the extracts from NVivo.
12 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013
Emotions or Science?
Gendered accounts of discipline areas Emotions were also highlighted by a non-
As an orienting task in the focus group psychology group who made the following
participants were asked to locate the subjects comments about the differences between
they were studying at A-level on a scale of 0 males and females in appropriate disciplines
to 10 with 0 representing the most male and to select:
10 the most female. The most common
responses for subjects perceived to be more NP Gp3: …it’s about like, as he said, your brain
female were art, health and social care, and like deep thought and stuff and I don’t think
drama and English. The perceived male boys choose deep thought and girls have more
areas were business studies, maths, IT and emotions, so they just think about deep thought
science subjects (such as chemistry and and the mind more, so I don’t think it would
physics). appeal to boys as much because of that reason.
Having reflected on the subjects they Okay.
took they were asked to discuss where they Girls probably have more sort of thinking skills,
would position psychology as a discipline. sort of deep thinking as [participant’s name] said
For many, psychology was aligned with femi- because of –
ninity: More emotions.
–yeah, because a boy wouldn’t probably indulge in
A2 Gp3: But what actually makes it really the thinking, just write it down straight away and
feminine? move on I suppose.
More like, feelings and stuff I reckon. I think psychologically women are more, like caring
Yeah. than men I think, so the psychology might appeal
The content is like, sort of the views like in health more to the women than the men.
and social, it’s something that they would practi-
cally use, there’s no point a male doing it really Whilst the group above could be excused for
Yeah. not having a knowledge of the psychology,
It’s a stereotype sort of thing. Isn’t it?. stereotypes about differences between males
and females in terms of how they think and
It is of note that this extract comes from a general dispositions were plentiful. The
group who have been studying psychology other extracts came from males who have
for over a year. One would expect them to be experience of the discipline. The idea that
aware of the breadth of topics covered on they should focus on the topic of emotions
the syllabus, yet still it is being likened to the (which is not central to the A-level syllabus)
discipline of health and social care, and seems puzzling. Yet one wonders if an
acknowledged as having a gendered stereo- external perception of psychology is driving
type. The idea that there is ‘no point’ in a the gendered stereotypes they refer to,
male studying the discipline is highly rather than drawing on any discipline
concerning. specific knowledge. This is suggested in the
Another group, when asked if they following quotations:
thought it was a fair perception that
psychology was a feminine subject, stated: A2 Gp: I think it’s the way that society has made
it. Because if you think that like…, we go by what
A2 Gp1: Probably everything we do is aimed at we see…, consider as normal, not what…, then
females. society makes physics more male dominated and
Later elaborating further: more like…, something that you see as male, then
…if you do physics it’s based all around the world. it becomes a more male subject, whereas drama, if
Psychology is more our emotions and that, it’s more you think of… you’ll think of like dancing around
of a feminine idea. you don’t think of it as a male thing.
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 13
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
Similarly another participant stated: Though many positioned psychology as a
subject for females rather than males, one
NP Gp3: I think a lot of it is how the subject is like, member of this non-psychology group had a
perceived in general by like, society, in that that more balanced account of the discipline:
sort of affects how you see things when you are
brought up. NP Gp3: Because I think the whole point of
psychology is that it’s to do with everything, like
Further discussions illustrated how gendered about the brain and stuff. It’s not just like the more
views about disciplines can also impact on female side of things, so there are male and female
the way individuals might be perceived. One aspects in, that you look at in psychology, so I
participant who was studying psychology think that would appeal to both sort of equally.
labelled males on his course as ‘more effem-
inate’: In direct contrast to the comments outlined
earlier, some members of the second
A2 Gp 2: …motor vehicle kids are all masculine psychology group did view it as more mascu-
and macho. And like for us who are kind of more line:
effeminate they can always take the pee out of us
and things. A2 Gp2: Psychology I put for number 3 which is
quite male dominated.
Whilst another participant in a non- So what makes you think that?
psychology group who recounted how he It’s like the crime and the profiling, that kind of
enjoyed english stated: section of it which, like [pupil’s name ] said, more
men are policemen and more men are prison offi-
NP Gp 1: …Most of my friends do do more scien- cers and stuff like that.
tific subjects, but, I don’t know, maybe I’m a freak
but that’s just the way it is. When asked by the facilitator to elaborate
further on the source of this:
For both these participants there is a sense So what gives you the perception of it being more
that not conforming to stereotypical male male dominated, where are you getting that infor-
subjects makes them different. Perhaps mation from?
gender stereotypes represent a form of pres- Like men are more likely to commit crimes than
sure to elect to study specific subjects. As this women.
participant points out: And if you look at the case studies as well, what
we’re studying, it’s like only a few women but I
A2 Gp2: If you look at the subjects you’re probably would say the majority are men, kind of research.
going to get more peer pressure because you’re not Okay, thank you.
going to get a guy doing, what’s it called? Child I put psychology as being extremely male.
development. You look into that class it is all Extremely male?
females so I think that the way people look at I don’t know why, I just think you look at it and it
subjects is very… there’s not really a lot of leeway... just screams male to me. I mean, I’ve put history as
being female because I think you need to do so
Perhaps it is not surprising in such an envi- much more leg work in history whereas psychology
ronment that males could be driven by the you’re looking at it and analysing it more and I
stereotype rather than the content of the think males analyse more things. That’s why more
course. Even those males who have bucked police officers are men and more females look at art
the trend and taken psychology appear to and sort of things and dance. I don’t know, I just
see themselves as doing something which is think that men look at things more analytically
aimed at women. This leaves them poten- than females.
tially open to ridicule from other males.
14 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013
Emotions or Science?
However, although these participants are Forensic aspect, I see as less of a science. It differs
labelling it as more masculine, their reasons depending on what approach you take in what
are still focused around differences between you’re looking at.
males and females here in the ways they So it’s the approach that they take in those
think, which are not dissimilar to the earlier different subject areas?
comments cited by those who thought Yeah.
psychology was more feminine. Views about
differences between how women and men Here the breadth of psychology is high-
think about subject disciplines and analyse lighted. However, it was the biological strand
information became salient features of the of the discipline was raised on a number of
discussions. occasions. But as this extract reveals, the link
The emphasis on science as a male domi- with biology (a core science subject) does
nated subject was also supported by the scale not make it any more masculine, as it is
exercise. The extract below, in relation to linked to the soul:
physics, illustrates how for some participants
science (or science based subjects) is not NP Gp3: …I would say it’s the soul section of
perceived as appealing to females: biology, or more in depth biology.
NP Gp2: It doesn’t appeal to women, because like, The idea of why it was only considered a sort
at the end of the day it’s because it’s all about how of science is developed further by this group:
stuff works and, everything…, hard to explain.
I think it’s sort of more that it’s like, the sort of NP Gp3: Do you think that psychology is a
thing that girls are more interested in, like, the science?
people and bodies and that sort of stuff, in my It’s a kind of science.
experience, so I think it’s just that it’s less focused Kind of, because it’s…,
on what they are interested in. It isn’t your sort of stereotypical laboratory type
science, but it is still a science in that you research
As discussed in the introduction psychology and try and find out more about things, which is
is classified as a science subject, thus another basically the essence of what science is, isn’t it?
important avenue to explore for this project
was how the discipline was perceived in rela- So although participants did not reject the
tion to science. idea of psychology as a science it was not
given the status of a ‘proper’ laboratory
Psychology as ‘a sort’ of science science.
The title of this theme was drawn from the
comment below, which seemed to encapsu- NP Gp2: I think it’s down to the fact that it isn’t
late the way in which participants discussed perceived like the other sciences, you know, like we
psychology’s status as a science: were saying, just because it sort of apart from them,
looking at the different side of research and things
A2 Gp2: Were you both aware, do you see it as a like that.
science psychology?
I see it as a sort of science. Discussion
The findings reveal that participants hold a
For some only certain elements of the disci- variety of views about how the discipline of
pline demand scientific status: psychology might be positioned. Essentially
it was not considered as a science subject on
A2 Gp2: Mmm, certain parts of it, like I see the a par with physics or chemistry (which
biological side of it, obviously there’s science in appeared to be the gold standard). Although
there. Health in psychology, I see that as a science. much of the experimental research
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 15
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
conducted within psychology is laboratory psychology A-level as ‘more effeminate’
based and research methods focus heavily on when compared to males taking more
the syllabus, like Janda et al.’s (1998) partici- ‘macho’ subjects. It seems that knowledge of
pants, the status of psychology here was seen a subject does not provide immunity from
as being less prestigious, summed up by the internalising gendered stereotypes.
terms ‘a sort of’ and ‘kind of’ science. This Overall these findings are concerning for
concurs with much of the research cited in anyone wishing to address the gender imbal-
the introduction, and leads one to conclude ance in psychology. Altering stereotypes is
that such a view is not exclusive to males. not easy. Gardner and Dalsing (1986),
However, as revealed within the theme enti- writing about college students’ misconcep-
tled ‘Gendered accounts of discipline areas’ tions of psychology, contended that many
being a male studying a ‘soft’ science can false beliefs had been learned from the
have negative connotations and might repre- media and parents. However, these beliefs
sent a contributory factor to why many males had become a part of their ‘conventional
elect not to pursue an academic qualifica- wisdom’ which, they argue, are then resistant
tion in this area. to change even if evidence to the contrary is
Strong notions of difference between the presented. Nearly 30 years later such
sexes were also highlighted within this ‘wisdom’ still appears to exist! In the present
theme. Gendered associations were made in study it was revealed that the ways in which
relation to interests in topic areas (e.g. feel- disciplines were positioned by friends, peers
ings and emotions), ways of thinking about and society all contributed to an awareness
topics (with females being considered of the type of subjects males and females
deeper thinkers) and general dispositions ‘should’ be studying. This raises the question
(such as being more caring); when taken of how one attempts to dispel the gendered
together these provided a rationale for why it stereotypes which seem to have become asso-
was more appropriate for females to engage ciated with psychology as a discipline area,
with psychology. Whilst many of these ideas together with the view that psychology is
seem to be rooted in stereotypes rather than some type of pseudo science. Anyone
fact (for example, psychology is not all about involved in teaching and promoting
emotions and feelings) such notions of psychology as a career choice is faced with a
difference had been internalised not just by huge challenge in convincing males that
those outside of the discipline. It appeared psychology could be of relevance for them.
that those who were studying psychology
were just as likely to exhibit such belief What could be done to promote
systems. This resonates with the statements psychology to males?
made by the male psychology students in It has been established within this article that
Sanders et al. (2009) study, and also mirror presently the status of psychology as a
the findings of Lynch and Nowosenetz science which will attract males seems
(2009). These authors, when considering dubious. In 2011 a report called ‘The Future
how gender was constructed amongst those of Undergraduate Psychology in the United
taking science, engineering and technology Kingdom’ was written collaboratively by
(SET) subjects, found that careers in this representatives of the British Psychological
area were perceived as men’s work and Society (BPS), the HEA and the Association
unsuitable for women. Participants of both of Heads of Psychology Departments
sexes were interviewed, yet it was found that (AHPD) (Trapp et al., 2011). In it the domi-
the females also constructed the discipline in nance of natural science based work under-
this way despite electing to study it. Similarly, taken in the field of UK psychology was
in the present study a male participant acknowledged, as was the heterogeneity of
labelled himself and fellow students taking the discipline which necessitates drawing on
16 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013
Emotions or Science?
wider methodologies and research para- A more radical idea would be to look at
digms. To argue that psychology has the the structure of university courses and offer
same status as other natural sciences would more flexible routes for psychology degrees
be futile and one might argue that its wide which comprise of the different ‘gendered’
knowledge base hinders its status as a science strands. If we consider another female domi-
and leaves it lacking coherence. However, an nated subject, medicine, research suggests
alternative line of reasoning is to view the that while the subject as a whole may be
breadth of the subject as one of its strengths, stereotypically considered as female
providing those who study it with training in (Mastekaasa & Smeby, 2008), the diverse
a range of academic skills. Trapp et al.’s pathways offered by these courses allow
(2011) team argue for adopting a wider defi- genders to identify those sub areas which
nition of the term science. This would most interest them, for example, women
involve going beyond the definition of the specialising in paediatrics and men in surgery
natural sciences but also to stress: and orthopaedics (Figueiredo et al., 1997).
‘…the added value of psychology as a subject Graduate Basis for Chartership regulations
that offers ‘STEM plus’ skills for students and from the BPS give students little leeway to
graduates (e.g. as including numeracy, tailor their focus to specific subjects. They are
empirical research skills, ethical awareness, required to have completed a syllabus
literacy, historical awareness and inter- covering sub-discipline areas of psychology
disciplinary team-work).’(Trapp et al., 2011, categorised under the following five core
p.8) domains: individual differences, social
It is interesting to note that this approach psychology, developmental psychology,
still retains an association with the natural cognitive psychology and biological
sciences for psychology, but also incorpo- psychology. It may be suggested that this
rates additional skills, rather than in syllabus seeks to emphasise a breadth of
engaging in an dichotomous either/or (i.e. knowledge of a number of core areas. Stewart
it either is or is not a science) type debate. (2010) reported on the intention of the AQA
Perhaps more vigorously marketing it in to offer more gender-specific GCSE science
such a way could raise its appeal with males. programmes from 2011. The emphasis here
There is no guarantee, though, that this is on different assessment strategies, based on
would convince males that psychology was the claim that males do better at exams and
not about feelings and emotions. Maybe females course work. Should higher educa-
there is a need for a targeted marketing tion be following such a model in order to
drive aimed specifically at attracting men to encourage more male participation? This
psychology which focuses on areas which clearly would involve a major restructuring of
more typically appeal to males. As stated in the curriculum and might be considered by
the introduction, statistics closely resembles some as a step too far.
mathematics and cognitive science can be A further avenue to explore is to use
linked in character to computing, all of more inclusive images when marketing
which currently enrol more males than psychology. The Department for Education
females. Is it time to actively dispel the myths have compiled the Equality and Diversity
about psychology being predominantly Toolkit for STEM related subjects, which
about emotions, therapy, and topics of more offers resources aimed at promoting equality
interest to females? Areas such as neuropsy- in a number of areas including gender
chology, cognition, statistics and the use of (cf www.stem-e-and-d-toolkit.co.uk). As one
experimental methods and writing of would expect, based on the fact that it is typi-
research reports might be highlighted more cally females who are under-represented in
in an attempt to offer a course which has a STEM subjects, the resources tend to be
more masculine feel. aimed at promoting females into disciplines,
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 17
Jenny Mercer, Paul Sander, Stella Williams & Tim Jones
however, there is no reason why publications images selected of women dressed in pink,
such as Postcards from the future, a comic book wearing make-up and reading fashion maga-
which provides information about the wealth zines, were so at odds with participants’
of opportunities STEM careers have to offer perceptions of those who might be involved
for women, could not be revamped for in the subject that they did not appeal as role
psychology and aimed at a male market. The models. Yet, the aforementioned study was
toolkit has many examples of posters with published in the Journal of Social Psychology
images of women in what would typically be and Personality, indicating that within
considered male jobs. Again there is no psychology we have the knowledge to
reason why posters relating to careers in consider how to address such issues. Perhaps
psychology could not be designed using it is time to draw on our own expertise which
male role models. Presently the BPS produce is often applied to other settings (e.g.
posters detailing a range of different career psychological knowledge used in health
paths, using sound bites from ‘real life’ promotion campaigns) and look at how we
people who work in the fields. However, could use them to help our own discipline.
female images seem to prevail here, for The thrust of this discussion has been
example the promotion of teaching and that addressing the gender imbalance is
research in psychology has two images, both unequivocally a positive thing to do. It must
female, and a quote from a woman working be acknowledged that one consequence of
in a London-based university. Neuropsy- making the discipline more attractive to
chology (which one might consider more males could be making it less attractive to
representative of the science subjects which females. There is no guarantee that the
the sample identified as appealing to men) is marketing strategies suggested above will
represented by an image of a brain and a attract more males, and in this scenario
picture of a woman, with a female neuropsy- could be counter-productive. It may also be
chologist based in a hospital providing the argued that having a science based discipline
sound bite. Whilst these are ‘real life’ exam- which is more popular amongst female
ples of a female dominated subject, surely student is not a bad thing; it can provide a
examples of men who work in the field could vehicle for an engagement with science
also be found to promote the discipline? amongst young women and go some way to
It is acknowledged on the website which balance the difference in the uptake of
houses the STEM equality and diversity science based courses by males and females.
toolkit that some areas and disciplines had However, the theme of the Division of
been more commonly researched than Academics, Researchers and Teachers in
others (psychology, for example, does not Psychology inaugral conference at which this
feature heavily on information about STEM research was originally presented was
subjects on their website – although it is ‘student engagement in a changing
included), however, it is contended here that economic climate’. Engaging males in such a
approaches such as using positive role climate might be essential. Whilst numbers
models and inclusive images are relevant for studying the discipline have remained
all equality groups. As previously high- healthy to date, the impact of the changed
lighted, altering deep rooted stereotypes is a funding arrangements and higher fees
big task. Recent studies by Betz and which the majority of new UK undergradu-
Sekaquaptewa (2012) into promoting ates incur in the 2012/13 academic year is
gender science role models amongst young yet to be established. We cannot sit back and
girls found that gender positive images assume psychology will remain a popular
which were too feminine had little effect in subject. We could need to up our game in
attracting those not interested in science. It promoting it, and in doing so actively
seemed that the ‘girlie’, overtly feminine consider male populations. Converting
18 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013