ERIC ED596462: Favor Reciprocation Theory in Education: New Corruption Typology

2016·0.7 MB·English

by  ERIC

InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
International Journal of Educational Development
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev
Favor reciprocation theory in education: New corruption typology
Amra Sabic-El-Rayessa,*,Naheed Natasha Mansurb
aTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,UnitedStates
bThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UnitedStates
A R T IC L E I NFO AB STRACT
Articlehistory:
Received18November2015 Embedded in a systemic and chronic process, corruption in education is a pervasive element that
Receivedinrevisedform20March2016 exacerbatesdevelopingcountries’effortstoeducatetheircitizens.Understandingthecumulativeimpact
Accepted26April2016 restsuponexposingkeyfeaturesofeducationalcorruptionandbringingtolightthevariedformsin
Availableonline6June2016 whichcorruptionemergeswithininstitutionsofhighereducation.Classifyingeducationalcorruption
maybeelusiveinthedevelopingsettingsduetotheacceptabilityandprevalenceofthephenomenon;
Keywords: yet, it is imperative that more attention is focused on this area. Based on the empirical research
Development conductedinBosniaandHerzegovina’shighereducation,thispaperbroadenscurrentunderstandingof
Corruption typologiesofeducationalcorruptionbyincorporatingthenovelformsemerginginthepost-warand
Non-pecuniary developingenvironmentofBosniaandHerzegovina.Inparticular,thestudysurprisinglyfindsthatelites
Favorreciprocation
gravitatetowardsandbenefitfromnon-pecuniarycorruptionwhilethepoortendtobribe.Thestudy
Highereducation
Corruptiontypology placestheonusonthelackofaccountabilityofelitepowermaneuversandaimstoaidincreatingfurther
awarenesstocombatcorruption.
ã2016TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-ND
license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1.Introduction1 breakup of the central monitoring system, relative to the past,
yieldedaneducationalstructurepronetocorruption(Heyneman
As the growth of [111_TD$DIFF]educational corruption threatens tounravel et al., 2008). While the decentralization and privatization
theincreasinginternationalsupportofeducationinrecentyears, processes intensified the difficulties of transition into market
practitioners and academics alike have begun to look into the economiesfortheformerUSSR(Heynemanetal.,2008),similarly
types, causes, and consequences of corruption. This empirical lackingorganizationandethnicallydrivendecentralizationwithin
research,depictingnewformsofcorruptionthathaveemergedin post-war Bosnia created a fertile ground for corrupt behaviors.
thepost-warhighereducationofBosniaandHerzegovina,expands Knowing more about typologies of educational corruption and
currenttypologiesof[111_TD$DIFF]educationalcorruptionbyutilizingBosniaas quantifyingthecorruptionortheperceptionofitisasalientand
asourceofprimarydata.Weraisetwoprimaryresearchquestions: still evolving research area in education. Challenges present
Is corruption present in Bosnia? If so, in which forms is it themselves particularly with attempts to accurately quantify
exhibited? corruption.Thisworkthereforepresumesthat,shortofwitnessing
ThebreakupofformerYugoslaviaandconsequentwarsinthe andeffectuallymeasuringcorruption,perceptionofcorruptionis
WesternBalkanscauseddestructionandethniccleansing,bringing broadlyacceptedasadefaultindicatorofcorruption.Transparency
about “a vacuum where a corrupt political class emerged” and International,forinstance,producesannualcorruptionperception
provokinganenvironmentopentovenality(DevineandMathisen, datatobuilditswidelyknownCorruptionPerceptionIndex.This
2005,1). Moreover, the overall weakening of the USSR and the studytakesthesameapproach,wheretheevidencestemsfromthe
datareflectingstudents’perceptionsofcorruption.
Corruption research carries inherent risks to researchers.
Exposing corruption may jeopardize the social, economic, and
* Correspondingauthor. political positions of those involved. These dynamics make
E-mailaddress:[email protected](A.Sabic-El-Rayess). quantification even more difficult. While this study cannot
1 Thisarticlewasderivedfromadoctoralresearch,titled“MakingofaVoiceless
Youth: Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Higher Education”, which was circumvent or address the nature of the challenges associated
defendedin 2012 atColumbiaUniversity’sTeachersCollege.Thisresearch was withresearchingcorruption,ourstudydoesrelyontheempirical
conductedwithfundingfromtheInternationalResearchandExchangeBoardand evidence collected at the higher education institutions that
Columbia University’s Harriman Institute for Russian, Eurasian, and Eastern consented to data collection on corruption, often in belief that
EuropeanStudies.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.04.005
0738-0593/ã2016TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32 21
they were considerably less corrupt than their peer institutions. p.6).Wegofurtherinthisstudybydelineatingthetwokeytypes
Thelaterdiscussedfindingssubstantiatingcorruptionandcorrupt ofcorruption:non-pecuniaryandpecuniaryformsofeducational
behaviorsinBosniaandHerzegovinaarelikelymoreconservative corruption.Pecuniaryformsofcorruptioninvolveabribewherean
estimatesoftheactualcorruptionifthestudyweretobeinclusive individual,oragroup,choosestoabusehis/herofficialauthorityto
ofother,arguablymorecorrupt,highereducationinstitutions. monetarilybenefitbyreceivingabribefromanotherindividual,or
Moreover,understandinghoweducationalcorruptionperpet- agroup,thatisexpectingtoreceiveafavororbenefitinexchange.
uatespoweroftheelitesinmanydevelopingstatesisanotherarea Non-pecuniaryformsofcorruptiondonotinvolveabribe.Favors
in educational research that calls for further inquiry. Heyneman are reciprocated instead, and no money exchanges hands. The
(2004)augmentsthediscussionontheroleofelitesineducation questionraisedandlateransweredinthisstudyisinwhatformsdo
systems by observing that all education systems have “elite the non-pecuniary forms of corruption manifest within higher
characteristics”(639)andarebynatureaselectionprocess,thatis education.Wetakeonthiscomplexissue,butrecognizethatthe
ifaneliteisdefinedasonewhoisabletoenterthroughthegatesof study only begins to address the intricacies of this clandestine
higher echelons of education. Furthermore, “how selection is phenomenon.
managed is deeply important for maintaining an equality of Othershavealsoclassifiedcorruptionandhelpeddeterminethe
educationopportunity”(Heyneman,2004,639).Nonetheless,the facilitators of corruption-related behaviors (Chapman, 2002;
problem is exacerbated if gatekeepers, in the form of elite and Heyneman, 2004;Rumyantseva, 2005). The 2013 Global Corrup-
politicalleaderswillfullyshutoutmembersofsocietyfromafair tion Report on Education by Transparency International [116_TD$DIFF]consoli-
and merit-based education. In comparison to a system of dated and exposed myriad forms of corruption; however, while
meritocracyineducation,thissubversivesystemofcontrolcannot exploring numerous case studies across the world, it does not
occur without a systematic and broadly designed net of corrupt formalizeatypologyofcorruptionineducation.Moreover,elite-
activities, difficult to detect yet highly sustainable as it involves based corruption as a form of non-pecuniary corruption is not
well regulated corridors of networked power, disseminated and exploredinotherstudiesasasystemicphenomenonwithitsown
encouragedthroughatopdownprocess.WaiteandAllen(2003) rigorous rules. For example, in the case study on Bosnia and
notethat“untilwerecognizecorruptioninallitsmanyguises,we, Herzegovina, Transparency International (2013, 190) only notes
andthoseweserve,remainitsunwittingvictims”(294).Thus,this briefly that faculty may exchange grades for access to “social
studyarguesthatanewclassificationofcorruptionineducation,[112_TD$DIFF] capital resources” such as “strengthening relationships with
which takes into account the subversive and widely established influential public figures from political or social life”. This study
control of elites over the higher education system,[113_TD$DIFF] is needed to however aims to scrutinize such observations through an
fully gauge the problem of corruption in education and, empiricallybased understandingof education corruption arising
particularly,inhighereducation. fromelite[117_TD$DIFF]’suseoffavor-basedreciprocations.
Werecognizethatfavorreciprocationsarepartoflifeandare
2.Literaturereview:corruptiontypologies plentiful in the course of daily human interaction. They become
problematic when seeded in the abuse of official authority that
Existingresearchonthetopichasaimedatcreatingtypologies benefits either one or more individuals. This is the type of
ofcorruptioninordertounderstanditseffectsonacademiaand corruption that we refer to as non-pecuniary corruption. It is
beyond (Altbach, 2004; Chapman, 2002; Heyneman, 2004; complex and can distort the meritocratic model of higher
Rumyantseva, 2005; Sayed and Bruce, 1998a; Transparency education, which is why it is at the core of this study. A group
International,2007;WaiteandAllen,2003).Broadeningresearch of professors may choose to promote each other based on their
on the types of educational corruption, Waite and Allen (2003) belonging to a particular ethnic, racial, or religious group rather
were among the first to inquire into the unexplored interplay thantheircompetence.Forinstance,ifincompetentprofessorsare
betweenpowerand corruption in education, and ways inwhich promoted based on their background traits rather than their
seeking a collective benefit for a group can both instigate and competence, the quality of teaching would be affected and
perpetuate corruption. In their notable piece on the topic, the damagingtotheeducationalprocessandsocietyatlarge([118_TD$DIFF]Sabic-
authorslookinto“anethnologyofcorruptionandabuseofpower El-Rayess,2016).
ineducationaladministration”(281).Accordingtotheirperspec- Inclassifyingcorruptionwithineducationalsystems,Chapman
tive,thelimitationofcurrentresearchoneducationalcorruptionis (2002) views corruption as occurring at any level of the
immediatelyevidentinthewidelyaccepteddefinitionofcorrup- educational governance: at the ministry level, school, region,
tion:corruptionisoftenandgenerallydefinedasanindividual’s classroom, and among international agencies. By introducing a
abuseofpublicpositionforhis/herowngood([114_TD$DIFF]Palmer,1992;Sayed new set of actors in corruption, Chapman (2002) refers to the
and Bruce, 1998b). While [111_TD$DIFF]educational corruption is frequently possiblecorruptionschemesamongtheinternationalactorsthat
individually beneficial, Waite and Allen (2003) expand this are, often and almost instinctively, presumed to be benevolent
definition by referring to Sayed and Bruce’s (1998b) notion of actorsineducation.Additionalexamplesofthecorruptactivities
collective benefit when defining corruption among the police. taking place within the international agencies, per Chapman
WaiteandAllen(2003) viewcorruptionas“anyuseofpoweror (2002), include excessively high payments that are unnecessary
position through discrete acts or behavior(s) that benefit an butaimedatobtainingcertainservicesorinformation,siphoning
individual, group, or organization” (282). The authors further fundsawayfromprojects,andmakingdecisionsontheallocation
recognize the salience of differentiating not only between of projects not based on the objective evaluations but based on
individual and collective forms of corruption, but also “between social,family,orbusinessconnections.Healsonotesthatthetypes
haphazardandmoresystemicformsofcorruption”(289),wherein of corruption are diverse and depend on the socio-economic,
WaiteandAllenclaimthatasubtleorhaphazardtypeofcorruption political,andculturalcontextinwhichtheyoccur.
isperfectlyembodiedinthecaseofanuninformedmemberofthe Rumyantseva(2005)contributestothisdiscussionbysuggest-
educationaladministrationwhohasrepeatedlyusedauniversity ing that educational corruption emerges in various forms,
computerforpersonalactivities.Similartothesebroaderviewson including,butnotlimitedto,“favoritisminprocurement,favorit-
corruption,we“flexiblydefineeducationalcorruptionasanyabuse isminpersonnelappointments,ghostteachers,sellingadmissions
ofofficialpositionthatispursuedbyanindividualforeitherhis/ and grades, private tutoring, and skimming from project grants”
herbenefitorthatofhis/herclassorgroup”([115_TD$DIFF]Sabic-El-Rayess,2013, (84).Sheinsightfullynotesthatthetypesofcorruptionoccurring
22 A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32
Table1
Keyresearchhypotheses.
SampleSize Method
Hypothesis1:PresenceofCorruption: 762Surveys DescriptiveStats
Corruptioninhighereducationhasnotablepresence 15Interviews ContentAnalysis
Hypothesis2:PecuniaryversusNon-PecuniaryCorruption: 762Surveys DescriptiveStats
Non-pecuniarycorruptionplaysanimportantroleindevelopingcontextsanddisproportionallybenefitstheelitesversus 15Interviews ContentAnalysis
non-elites
Hypothesis3:Students’TraitsandNon-PecuniaryCorruption 762Surveys BinaryLogistic
Students’socialstandingiskeyindeterminingtheirroleinfavor-reciprocationprocesses.Therefore,students’background Regression
traitsshapetheirviewonwhethernon-pecuniarycorruptionintheirinstitutionsofhighereducationisexistentornot Model
Dependent:
Y=PassingviaSocial
Connections
Independents:
X1=HouseholdIncome
X2=Sex
X3=StudentType
X4=CompetenceBelief
X5=Father’sPosition
[96_TD$DIFF]X6=Father’sEducation
within the administration do not impact the values, beliefs, and preciselyastateofbeingtowardswhichBosnia’seliteshavemoved
futurelifepathofstudentsasdirectlyasthetypesofcorruption thecountry’shighereducation.Asdiscussedandsupportedbythe
most explicitly involving students. Offering a rich overview of empirical evidence in the forthcoming sections, the elite-based
typesofcorruption,Rumyantsevafocusesontheindividualgains favor reciprocations currently flourish within Bosnia’s higher
and consequences rather than collective benefits and shared educationframework,butdosounderasystemthatisseemingly
motivationsofthoseinvolvedinthecorruptactivities.Heyneman andpublicallystrivingtowardsbecominganintegratedpartofthe
(2004) had further enriched the typology research in education EU’s higher education area known for its attempt to harmonize
corruptionbydividingthistypeofcorruptioninto:“corruptionin transparency and merit-based mobility across all participating
selection,corruptioninaccreditation,corruptioninprocurement, countries.InBosnia,littleincentivetodrasticallychangethelegal
professionalmisconduct, andcorruptionineducationalproperty framework exists, although a Law on Pardon was established in
and taxes” (845), Rumyantseva (2005) posits that there may be 2004andtaken advantageof before itwas revoked([119_TD$DIFF]Devineand
anotherclassificationallowingforamorenuancedcomprehension Mathisen,[120_TD$DIFF]2005).TheLawonPardon,passedbytheparliamentand
of [111_TD$DIFF]educational corruption. She begins by terming those trans- government of Bosnia in January 2004, was unreported by the
actions involving students as agents, education-specific corrup- media, emphasizing its furtive purpose to help elites take
tion,breakingthiscategoryfurtherintostudent-facultyexchange, advantageofit([119_TD$DIFF]DevineandMathisen,[120_TD$DIFF]2005).Aftera memberof
student-administratorexchangeandstudent-staffexchange(88– parliament (MP) received the first pardon, followed by several
89).Thosetransactionsthatdonotinvolvestudentsasagentsshe morepardonsgranted tohighofficials, theduplicitousnatureof
terms administrative corruption. In each of the subcategories of the law came to the attention of the High Representative who,
education-specific corruption, she argues, corruption arises then, repealed it (Internal SIDA memo in [121_TD$DIFF]Devine and Mathisen, [120_TD$DIFF]
throughtheexchangeofbribesandfavorsforgrades,admissions, 2005).
oraccesstotranscripts,books,anddormitories. Beingincontrolofcreationandexecutionoflegalframeworks,
Inaddition,KaufmannandVicente(2011) createpathwaysin the elites of developing countries often exploit the systems to
understanding the multiple definitions of corruption, especially benefit their collective goals. In the process, favors amongst the
whenthenotionoflegalityisconsidered.Theirstudyuncoversa elites are often exchanged through social networks and are not
new reality created by corruption as it takes into account the adequately sanctioned because of the power reinforcement that
powerdynamicsofelitebehavioranditssusceptibilitytoadaptthe theseexchangesprovidetotheelites’withintheclosedcirclesof
machineryofthestate,suchaslegalframeworks,toitsownneeds. power.Aversionofthiscorruption-preserves-class-powernotion
Situating elites in a zero sum game of gain and loss, the study emergesfromChapman’s(2002)writing,whereinhereasonsthat
identifiesthreeequilibriumoutcomes:thefirstoutcomeproposes “gatekeepers’ ... motivationisofteneconomic–tosupplement
thatillegalcorruptionflourisheswhentheelitesareallowedordo income–butmayalsobeanefforttoextend[155_TD$DIFF]theirstatusorpower”
not face “binding incentives” to limit corruption; the second (8).
outcome is an alternative that is “centered around legal corrup- Though it is needed to achieve a deeper understanding of
tion”inwhichthereisacostburdenundertakenbytheelites“to educationalcorruption,literatureontheinterplaybetweenpower,
legallyprotectcorruption”;thelastandmostidealoutcome,“ano- social mobility, and corruption in the educational sector, in
corruption outcome” engenders a situation in which “the particular,remainslimited.ItwasonlyafewyearsagothatWaite
population is able to effectively react to corruption” (Kaufmann andAllen(2003) pioneeredsuch aneffort. Ifa societyembraces
andVicente,2011,195).Onestepfurthermaybetoinquireintothe nonmerit-basedmobility,2itarguablyacceptscorruption-related
clandestinemechanismsthatareavailableandofwhichelitestake behavior,sinceaflawedapparatusotherthanmeritocracyplaysa
advantagetosafeguardtheirreputations.Astherearehighercosts
tomanipulatethelegalframeworktomakecorruptionlegaland
lower costs to take part in illegal corruption (Kaufmann and
2 Pleasenotethatwhilewerecognizethedebateonwhatmayconstitutemeritis
Vicente, 2011, 200), maximum gain and minimum loss rules
ongoing (Jaschik, 2013), this paper presumes that the meritorious mobility in
dictateprevaricationinthesimplestofactivitiesandsimulationof
educationconstitutesonebackedbysuperioracademicperformanceforstudent
afaçadetopreservebothpowerandlackofaccountability.Thisis andbynotableexpertise,publicationrecord,andexcellentteachingforfaculty
members.
A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32 23
keyroleindeterminingsocialstanding inasociety.To maintain toaccountfortheclassificationofcorruptinteractions.Ourstudy
statusquo,thoseinpowertendtoleverageeducationalcorruption broadenscurrentdebateontherelevanceofcorruptioninhigher
forthemaintenanceofthiselitestatus.Theultimategoalofthis education in developing countries by empirically determining [123_TD$DIFF]
studyistobegindecodingwhattypesofeducationalcorruptionin mostfrequentlyperceivedformsofcorruptioninhighereducation
developingsettingsbecomesystematicandnormalizedbehaviors withinBosnia’shighereducationsystem.
that allow the elites to utilize educational institutions for the Thisarticleisderivedfromalargermixed-methodsempirical
maintenanceofsocialinequalitiesandforturninguniversitiesinto research([124_TD$DIFF]Sabic-El-Rayess, 2012) with the intent tohighlight the
likelymechanismsofelitestatuspreservation.Thisstudytherefore complexity of corrupt behaviors in higher education systems of
presentsanempiricallysupportednewtypologyofcorruptionthat fragile and post-war societies. While broader study relies on
dissects corrupt behaviors by their pecuniary or non-pecuniary elaborate logistic regression modeling, this article zooms in on
nature. several key statistics, trends, and a specific logistic regression
modelthatprovidesdeeperinsightsonnon-pecuniarycorruption.
2.1.Keyresearchhypotheses All analysis is derived from 762 randomly surveyed and
15 purposely selected and interviewed students from public
Usingmixedmethods,weaddressthreekeyresearchquestions higher education institutions in Bosnia. The survey instrument
in the context of the sampled higher education institutions in contained 39 questions though only sub-selected and most
Bosnia.Theprimarypropositionofthispaperisthateducational relevant findings are presented herein. The semi-structured
corruptionplays prominently in higher education institutions in interview guide consisted of several sub-sections, starting with
Bosnia and, furthermore, that the non-pecuniary corruption the most relevant section for this paper, aimed at addressing
benefiting elites is particularly concerning and relevant in questions on the forms of perceived corruption in higher
addressing corruption in education systems of developing education, reasons for its persistency, and facilitators of corrup-
countries. More specifically, the study proposes the following tion.
hypotheses(seeTable1): Given logistic difficulty of obtaining data on corruption, the
study is unique in its ability to have compiled and analyzed
1. Corruptioninhighereducationisnotablypresent. substantive data on corruption in higher education. Briefly, we
2. Non-pecuniary corruption, as manifested in the form of favor analyzekeydescriptivestatisticstospelloutcurrenttrendsonthe
reciprocations, plays a role in higher education institutions, forms in which corruption manifests itself in Bosnia’s higher
oftenbenefitingtheelites. education. The trend analysis was supplemented and further
3. Students’ social standing is key in determining their role in validatedusingrelevantsegmentsofthebroadercontentanalysis
favor-reciprocation processes. Therefore, whether students [122_TD$DIFF] of the interview-based data. Resembling quantitative approach,
view non-pecuniary corruption in their institutions of higher the content analysis also looks for repetition of concepts in the
education as existent or not is dependent on students’ interview-based data. In this study, it has helped uncover the
backgroundtraits. contextualidiosyncrasiesofeducationalcorruptionandelitesthat
could not be observed or detected if the study were exclusively
Thefirsttwohypothesesweretestedbyexaminingthesurvey reliant on survey-based trends alone. Through this method, the
data as well as byunpacking the contentof the semi-structured study directlyaddressesthe roleof non-pecuniarycorruption in
interviews conducted with students in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia’shighereducationinstitutions.
Thethirdhypothesisreliedonthebinarylogisticregressionsthat
examined whether students’ views on the presence of non- 3.1.Contentanalysis
pecuniarycorruption are dependent on background traits of the
participating students. If students’ perceptions of non-pecuniary ThecontentanalysismethodwasfirstdevelopedbyGottschalk
formsofcorruptionwereshapedbystudents’backgroundtraits,it andGleser(1969).Itisgenerallydefinedas“amethodofstudying
would point to the importance of student background in favor and analyzing communications in a systematic, [and] objective
reciprocations in higher education. The elites and non-elites are manner...”(Kerlinger, 1986). For this research, the individual
impacteddifferentlybyfavorreciprocation,andtheirviewsonthe studentinterviewswerefirsttranscribedindetailthenanalyzed
presence of non-pecuniary forms of corruption should similarly foranypotentialpatternsthatcouldfurtherinformthequantita-
differ based on the students’ background traits. Finding the tive analysis and complement other findings. Gorard and Taylor
differential would solidify our theoretical proposition that the (2004)simplifydifferentiationbetweenquantitativeandqualita-
favor reciprocations are beneficial to the elites while the bribes tiveresearchtothenarrativenatureofthelatterthatallowsthe
remainrelevantforthepoorersegmentsofthesociety. researcher simply to ask direct questions. Hammersley (1996)
pointstothein-depthinterviewsasinformativeinformulationof
3.Methodologicalframework:mixedmethodsapproach surveys, illustrating that one methodological approach can be
informed by the other. This study applies the content analysis
As we are curious about corruption intangibly and subtly method by reducing detailed interview-based data to relevant
affectingthecreationofsocialhierarchies,thisstudycallsforthe themesandlookingforpatternsandrepetitionofcertainconcepts,
recognition of diverse factors that may shape corruption in withtheparticularfocusontheconceptsthatplayedprominently
education.Inwar-torncountriessuchasBosnia,poverty,ethnicity, inthesurvey-baseddata.
wealth,andultimatelyone’spersonalcharactermayshapeone’s
pronenesstowardscorruptbehaviors.Moreimportantly,infragile 3.2.Binarylogisticregression
states characterized with high levels of societal corruption,
education tends toreflectthe societal pronenesstocriminalized As anotherkeypiece of the overall analysis, wetest whether
activities and corrupt behaviors. Most importantly, however, we students’ perception of a non-pecuniary form of educational
argue, it is essential to determine if and to what extent one’s corruption as present (event occurring and coded as 1) or not
affiliationwiththesocio-economicandpoliticalelites,impactsthe (event not occurring and coded as 0) can be explained by their
mannerinwhichhighereducationcorruptionmanifestsitself.Any background characteristics. This approach warrants the use of
consideredpolicyresponsetoaddresscorruptionineducationhas simple binary logistics regression. Probit regression was an
24 A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32
alternativecontender,butbothtendtoyieldsimilarresults([125_TD$DIFF]Gill, Table2
2001; Greene,1997[126_TD$DIFF]). Unlike linear regression, logistic regression Samplecomposition.
hasnostrictrequirementsforthepredictors’distributions([127_TD$DIFF]Bewick VARIABLE %OFSTUDENTS #OFSTUDENTS
et al., 2005). Its dependent variable, logit, is expressed as the
SEX
naturallogoftheodds,wheretheoddscapturearatiobetweenthe Female 64 488
probabilityoftheeventoccurring(p)versustheprobabilityofthe Male 34 259
eventnotoccurring(p).Thebinarylogisticregressionisexpressed Noanswer/Notapplicable 2 15
astheLog(odds)=logit(p)=ln(p/1(cid:1)p).
ETHNICITY
Thekeyprerequisiteforthebinarylogisticregressionanalysisis Bosniaks 96 732
totestthelinearitybetweenthelogitandpredictors,butonlyfor Croats 2 15
continuous and ordinal predictors. In the forthcoming model, Serb 0.01 1
predictorsforfather’srankingatwork(Father’sPosition),father’s Bosnians 2 14
level of education (Father’s Education), family’s income ranking
YEARINSCHOOL
(HouseholdIncome),andstudent’sacademicranking(StudentType) 1styearstudents 48.0 366
were all ordinal variables and were therefore tested for the 2ndyearstudents 32.9 251
linearity assumption. The Box-Tidwell Transformation Test is a 3rdyearstudents 11.7 89
4thyearstudents 6.7 51
technique that determines whether the linearity assumption is
Noanswer/Notapplicable 0.7 5
violatedornot.3TheBox-TidwellTransformationTestrequiresthat
for each of the above noted predictors, a new and transformed FACULTYCOMPOSITION
variable is created by multiplying the natural log of X with the F1 13.4 102
predictor X.4 Once transformed, the transformed predictor is F2 8.9 68
F3 26.4 201
includedintoabinarylogisticregressiontodeterminewhetherthe
F4 21.9 167
transformed variable’s coefficient is significant, which would be F5 25.6 195
indicativeofthelinearityassumption’sviolation.TheBoxTidwell F6 3.8 29
Test wasperformedforallof theabovenotedordinalpredictors
andthelinearityassumptionswerenotviolated.5 HOUSEHOLDINCOME(HI)
HI<500 21.5 165
500<HI<1500 57.2 438
3.3.Sampling 1500<HI<2500 14.0 107
2500<HI<3500 2.3 18
Despiteincreasingemergenceoftheprivatehighereducation 3500<HI 2.6 20
Noanswer/Notapplicable 2.3 18
institutions, the public higher education remains the main
credentials provider in Bosnia. Therefore, the study sampled Source:[97_TD$DIFF]Sabic-El-Rayess(2012).
publichighereducationinstitutions.Datawascollectedat6public
higher institutions, which allowed for their students to be
sophomores, juniors, and seniors (Table 2). This is primarily the
randomly surveyed on the topic of educational corruption.
caseduetothehighdropoutratesinBosniaand,aslaterdiscussed,
Presumably, these higher education institutions did not expect
the nature of corrupt behaviors that are pushing out certain
corruption in their institutions to play as prominently as it did,
subgroupsofstudentsfromthehighereducationarena.Intermsof
therebycomparativelyitislikelythatotherinstitutionsdeclining
their household income, participants’ socioeconomic profile
toparticipateinthestudyweremoreconcernedaboutthelevelof
resembledthatofthecountrywhilethemono-ethniccomposition
corruptionwithin their institutions. Other institutions had been
of thesamplewasreflectiveof theethnicprofileofthefaculties
approached, but declined to participate given the nature of the
wherepermissiontocollectdatawassecured(Table2).Whilethe
research.Consideringthesecircumstances,thispaperisbasedon
studymayhavebenefitedfromamorediverseethniccomposition
oneofthelargerempiricaleffortsonthetopicintheareaofhigher
of the sample, it is generally presumed that ethnicity does not
educationintheBalkans.Therandomlysurveyedsampletotaledto
impact the frequency with which corruption occurs in higher
762 students, but the sampling process was further enriched by
education in Bosnia. Issues of corruption have been consistently
interviewing a smaller sample of students who were purposely
reportedwithinbothethnicentitiesinBosnia.Moreimportantly,
approached through a network of in-country contacts. In total,
the study’s relevance surpasses the region in question to have
15studentsacceptedaninvitationtoparticipateinthisresearch
broaderimplicationsforourunderstandingofcorruptiondynam-
andopenlydiscusscorruption.
icsinfragilestates.
Given Bosnia’s societal sensitivity towards corruption, the
namesofthesixpublicfacultieswerecodedfromF1throughF6.
4.Findingsandanalysis:favorreciprocationtheoryin
Overall,surveyedsample[128_TD$DIFF](Table2),closelyresemblesgeneraltraits
education
of the higher education populations in Bosnia, in terms of
graduationratesandgendercomposition([129_TD$DIFF]Sabic-El-Rayess,2012,
The importance of education, especially post-secondary edu-
2014, 2016). The majority of students surveyed were first year
cation, has risen significantly in recent decades to better serve
students with declining participation by students who were
whatisnowknownastheknowledgesociety.Aseducationholds
greater currency, we ascertain the irony in the way today’s
knowledge society, a term defined by UNESCO World Report to
3 Intheeventthelinearityassumptionhasbeenviolated,thevariableinquestion include [130_TD$DIFF]cultural diversity, equal access to education, [131_TD$DIFF]universal
would be restructured as dummy variables and, in that new form, could be access to information (in the public domain), and freedom of
incorporatedintothebinarylogisticregressionmodel. expression[132_TD$DIFF]canpropelgreatercorruptionwhenintryingtomeet
4 TransformedVariableofX=X(cid:3)lnX
5 Thefollowingtransformedvariableswerefirstcomputed:TransformedFather’s thedemandsfornewskills,studentsmeetexploitativeconditions
Position,TransformedFather’sEducation,TransformedThree-LevelFamilyIncome,and set by rent seeking, and power wielding actors [133_TD$DIFF](UNESCO World
TransformedStudentType.ResultingfromtheBox-Tidwelltesting,wedetermined Report, p. 31). This is due to the high stakes nature of higher
thatthelinearityassumptionswerenotviolatedforanyofthetestedpredictors. educationanditslinktobetteremploymentandotheremblemsof
Therefore,thepredictorswereusedinregressionmodelingintheiroriginalform.
[(Fig._1)TD$FIG] A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32 25
Fig.1. Extentofcorruptioninsampledhighereducationinstitutions.
Source:Surveys.
success.Thelackofenforcementoflawscompoundedbyaweak activitythatinvolvestheacceptanceorgivingofbribery,”whilethe
judicial process and accountability ensure that well-connected remainder demarcated it more broadly as a cluster of activities
elites not receive punishment for their corrupt behavior. Their rangingfrombriberytoreciprocationoffavorsamongthesocial
cases,iftheyreachthecourts,areroutinely“stalledorpostponed” elite (Table 3). Among those who described corruption more
(DevineandMathisen,2005,23).Thus,themodelthispapertests broadlyincludingtheformsofnon-monetaryexchangesaswell,
portrays that students’ high socioeconomic status for favor interviewee 9C estimated that favor exchanges comprise about
reciprocation helps them to mitigate the extenuating circum- 80%ofallcorruption-relatedactivitiesinhighereducation,while
stances that corruptionpresents, while less connected and poor about20%islefttothebribingprocess(Table3).
studentssuffer. Notably, the two interviewed individuals who believe that
corruption is limited only to the bribing process were also
4.1.Presenceofcorruption politically active in their community. Interviewee 1C not only
optedforthemorelimiteddefinitionofcorruptionbutunderlined
Thestudy’sfindingsonthepresenceofcorruptioninBosnia’s thatfavorreciprocationisaformofnepotismnotsolelylinkedto
higher education show that overall, the corruption is notably the elites but is also culturally practiced. Interviewee 1C also
present in the sampled higher education institutions. Given remarkedthatprofessorslookatthepoliticallyinvolvedstudent
rigoroussamplingmethodologyandsizeoftherandomlychosen “more seriously and with different eyes.” The student further
sample,thispresenceofcorruptionispresumedlargelyreflective attributedhisownpersonalsuccesstohardwork,reiteratingthat
ofthepubliceducationsysteminBosniaand,likely,mirrorsmany hehashadnoproblemsorbarriersinthecourseofhisstudies.The
highereducationinstitutionsthroughoutthedevelopingworld.Of aboveevidenceshowsthatthestudentwhoiscaughtwithinthe
thetotalsurveyedsample,only8.5%ofsurveyedstudentsviewed machineryofcorruptionisunlikelytogiveadisinterestedviewof
corruptionas“completelyabsent”.Moreover,45.4%ofthesampled this crisis. Furthermore, the three interviewees who stated they
student body stated that corruption is “neither widespread nor were socio-politically “highly involved” were also on the lower-
absent”, but 22.3% of the sampled population believed that end of the student estimates as to the extent of corruption.
corruption is “widespread” and 8.9% declared that corruption is Specifically,interviewees1C,11C,and15Cremarkedthat“30–40%
“highlywidespread”(Fig.1).Insum,of762surveyedstudents,only of professors” are corrupt; corruption is “present, but not
8.5% view corruption as “completelyabsent,” while a significant widespread”;and“50%ofprofessors”arecorrupt,respectively.
portion of the sample, 88.7%, believes corruption is present to Those students who declared they were less involved socio-
somedegree(Fig.1).Only2.8%ofthesurveyedparticipantsopted politicallywithintheircommunitiesoftengavehigherestimatesof
outofthequestion. how widespread corruption is than those who claimed to have
Similarly,theinterviewedgroupoverallagreedthatcorruption been “highly involved”. The study finds that 2 out of 3 students
waspresentintheeducationalsystemofBosniaandHerzegovina. whoremarkedtheywere“somewhatinvolved”estimatedthat70%
Theextentandpresenceofcorruptionwasalsodiscussedwiththe of their professors are corrupt (Table 3). Also, the “somewhat
poolof15interviewedstudents.Oneoftheinterviewedstudents uninvolved”studentwhograduatedfromapublicuniversityand
noted that while educational corruption does not occupy a later gained employment as a teaching assistant at a different
spotlightonadailybasisinthemediaofBosniaandHerzegovina, universitystatedthatcorruptionwasevenmorewidespread:the
itisadailyoccurrenceintheeducationalprocess(Interviewee6C). student perceived 90% to 95% of faculty members as corrupt
Theissuepartlyrestswiththeinstitutions’implicitendorsement (Table3).Thoughthesamplesizeof15studentsisalimitingfactor
ofcorruptbehavior:itisnotintheinterestoftheuniversitiesto here,thepatternsextrapolatedfromtheavailabletranscriptsare
disclose the information on the presence of corruption and its suggestiveofthepreviouslyhypothesizednotionthatcorruptionis
extent(Interviewee1C). perceivedaslesswidespreadbythemostpoliticallyandsocially
In defining corruptionwithin Bosnia’s higher education, only prominentstudentswhoarealsotheonesmostlikelytobenefit
2 interviewed students perceived corruption as “the criminal fromtheiraccesstothesocialelitesandtheirabilitytoleveragethe
26 A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32
Table3
Corruptiondefinitionandpresencematrix.
Code Socio-Political Corruption Corruptionperceivedasbribery,favor Perceivedextentofcorruption
Involvement perceivedasbribery reciprocity,otherimmoralbehavior
1C HighlyInvolved U 30–40%ofprofessors
2C Uninvolved U Highlywidespread
3C Uninvolved U Veryfrequent
4C Uninvolved U Highlywidespread
5C Uninvolved U Highlywidespread
6C Somewhat U 70%
Involved
7C Uninvolved U 80%
8C Somewhat U 70%
Involved
9C8 Somewhat U Increasesduringtheexamperiod.About90–95%arecorrupt.Thisis
Uninvolved basedonthefacultywhereIwork.
10C Uninvolved U 90%
11C HighlyInvolved U Present,butnotwidespread
12C Uninvolved U 70%
13C Uninvolved U Onlybeganstudiesandcannotevaluate
14C Somewhat U Present
Involved
15C HighlyInvolved U Present,about50%ofprofessors
TOTAL Uninvolved 2 13
Source:Interviews
[(Fig._2)TD$FIG]
Fig.2. Formsofeducationalcorruption.
Source:Surveys
elites’socialnetworks.Inthenextsub-section,thestudycontinues corruption in Bosnia’s higher education. In doing so, we draw
to probe this notion indirectly by examining the types of onthemostrelevantsurvey-andinterview-baseddata.
corruptionmostfrequentlyobservedinBosnia’shighereducation. Asnotedintheliteraturereview,corruptionineducationcan
take on various forms. Herein, both interviewees and surveyed
4.2.Corruptiontypologyreflectingfavor-reciprocationmodel studentsconfirmedtheexistenceofdiversetypesofcorruptionas
manifestedinBosnia’shighereducation.Of762surveyedpartic-
Here, we reflect upon the exhaustive list of corruption forms ipants,8.8%ofthesamplewasoftheviewthatcorruptionappears
that are presently practiced in Bosnia’s higher education. innoformwithinBosnia’shighereducationwhilethetwomost
Addressing one of our key research questions on the forms of frequentlyoccurringformsofcorruptioninvolvepassingexamsby
corruption(Table1),wetheorizethatstudentsfacevarioustypes relying on personal connections and influential parents (Fig. 2).
of corruption during their education; accordingly, we portray a Whilenotanunlikelyscenarioforthenon-elites,repeatedlyfailing
comprehensive picture, which includes the myriad types of an individual of social importance would rarely occur. In other
words, “connections and acquaintances are the key” to one’s
success, and it mayoften be the case that “the poor have topay
[emphasis added] while those with higher status only use their
8 Aftergraduation,thisintervieweeobtained ajob as ateachingassistant at connections” (Interviewee 5C). Simply said, some students in
anotherpublicfaculty.
A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32 27
Bosnia work hard but those who are well connected socially publications is irrelevant relative to one’s political suitability
advanceincollegeand,often,post-collegeatthe expenseof the (Interviewee4C).
hard-workingindividualsbytakingwhatshouldhavebeentheir The second most frequently occurring form of corruption
jobs(Interviewee5C). helpedvalidatethehypothesisthatthereciprocityoffavorsplaysa
crucialroleincomplicatingeducational corruption:50.8%of the
4.3.Theoryinaction:favorsareforrichandbribesareforpoor surveyed sample believe that educational corruption appears in
theformof“passingbecauseofone’sinfluentialparents,”which
ThemostfrequentlynotedformofcorruptioninBosnianhigher reflectsaverysimilarnotionasdoestheearliernotedstatisticthat
education does not involve monetary exchange but rather the 62.1%ofthesurveyedstudentthoughtcorruptionappearsinthe
reciprocity of favors: more specifically, a significant majority or form of “passing exams because of one’s social connections”
62.1%ofthestudentbody(473ofsurveyedstudents)thoughtthat (Fig. 2). This finding not only confirmed that students perceive
corruptionappearsintheformof“passingexamsbecauseofone’s favor-for-favorexchangesascorruptionbuthasalsotestedoneof
social connections” (Fig. 2). The data collected via interviews thekeypremisesofthisresearch:itconfirmedtheimportanceof
similarly suggest that the reciprocity of favors is one of the key favor reciprocity and consequent implications for the social
articulations of educational corruption in Bosnian higher educa- mobility mechanisms stemming from the students’ perceptions
tion and, in the view of some, the dominant one. Often, direct offavor-for-favorexchangesascorruption.
exchangesofmoneyintheeducationalsystemtosecuregradesor The notion that this paper brings into the limelight is the
diplomas are seen as less frequent relative to favor exchanges complexity of non-pecuniary corruption, making educational
(Interviewee4C;Interviewee5C;Interviewee7C).Reiteratingthat corruptionevenmoreofanintractableactivitythanitmighthave
thepoortendtobribeandtheelitesresorttotheiraccesstothe been initially perceived to be. Even with bribery that could
influential and powerful, another participant referred to a arguably be traced, there are rarely direct exchanges of money;
colleague who used social connections to enroll into college. instead,theexchangesfrequentlyincludemultiplestepsdesigned
Thewell-connectedstudentexplicitlysaid:“Ihavetheprivilegeto toshroudthoseinvolved.Forinstance,oneparticipantwitnessed
entercollegewithoutanycriteria”(Interviewee14C). anincidentwhere“astudentwalkedinduringtheS[codeforthe
Consequently, students perceive corruption as no longer course]exam,andsaidtotheprofessor,‘Dadsaidyoushouldstop
involving tangible goods but exchanges of jobs, favors, and bytopickitup,’andprofessorreplied,‘Givemeyourindeks6’to
promises.Outof15interviewedstudents,9studentsbelievethat [presumably]writeinthegradefortheexamthatwasinsession”
corruption in higher education is a result of interconnectedness (Interviewee2C).Thisexchangeoccurredandwasuninterruptedin
andinserviceofanelitedescribedas,forinstance,“localpower- frontoftheentireclass.
holders” (Interviewee 1C), “local leaders” (Interviewee 2C), Thedichotomybetweentheelitesandnon-elitesinhowthey
“people with political power” (Interviewee 3C), “those who are operate and interact within higher education institutions is
politically suitable” (Interviewee 4C), and “people in power” obviated in the following comment made by one of the study
(Interviewee8C).Itispreciselythisevolvingnatureofcorruption participantswhowentontotakeateachingassistantshipjobat
resulting from the interconnectedness between the educational his/herinstitution:
and political elitethat makes comprehensiveverification, detec- [134_TD$DIFF]“MycolleagueiscompletingadoctorateinCroatiawithoneof
tion, and proper quantification of corruption highly complex. the,supposedly,prominentnamesinthefield.Heisconstantly
Therefore, this study relies solely on student perception as diningwiththeprofessorfromCroatia.Isuspectthatishowhe
indicative proxy of what may be taking place in actuality and isgettinghisdoctorate.I,ontheotherhand,havebeenworking
withinthecountry’shighereducation. foryearsonmydoctorate,andeveryoneissurprisedthatIwant
Drawing on the analysis of students’ perceptions regarding todoitlegitimatelyandthatIamtakingsolongtocompleteit.
variousformsofeducationalcorruption,thestudyconfirmsthat (Interviewee9C[135_TD$DIFF])”
materialisticexchangeisnotthesolesourceofcorruptbehavior.
Thisstatementillustratestheseverityofeducationalcorruption
Indeed,“favor-for-favor”isanotherformofcorruption,producinga
and the consequent differentiation between the elites and non-
college-educated cadre among which some are believed to have
elites,extendingbeyondstudentsintothefacultyarena.Infact,the
never even taken an exam (Interviewee 3C). As another student
socialexchangesamongsttheprivilegedremainarelevantsocial
observed, when going through the admissions process, it is
dynamicevenaftergraduationandespeciallywhenitcomestothe
important to have someone who will “speak on your behalf as
publicsectoremployment:aBosnianpublicfacultygraduatewho
grades do not speak for themselves” (Interviewee 15C). So, the
soughttoworkasateachingassistantpost-graduationmetwith
student’sbackgroundmayturnouttobethemostrelevantfactor
thedeanofherfacultyandexpressedherinterestinstayingonasa
in the admissions process, diminishing the importance of
teachingassistant.Givenherexceptionalperformanceasastudent,
academic success and merit as a measure of student’s perfor-
she expected the faculty dean to be interested in discussing
mance.
employmentopportunitieswithher.However,thisfaculty’sdean
Whilethepoliticalelitesoperatebasedontheprincipleof“Ido
rejected her by saying: “I do not employ social cases ... your
it for you, you do it for me,” thosewho lack strong connections
parents are unemployed” (Interviewee 4C). The dean effectively
“workhardandrepeatyearsendlesslyuntileitheroneortheother
disassociated himself or his faculty with a family of no social
givesup[professororthestudent] ... ortheywilltakealoanto
significance or financial backing. This finding helps validate the
bribetheprofessororifthestudentisfemale,shewillsleepwith
relevanceofsocialnetworkingthatcontinuespost-graduationand
the professor” (Interviewee 7C). Even the professors who reject
beyondeducationalsector,aswellasthisstudy’shypothesisthat
corruptionandwishtodifferentiatethemselvesfromthecorrupt
relationship leveraging is utilized only when the two sides
circles are frequently forced totake part in the corrupt process:
involved recognize their mutuallyequivalent social and political
they “pass students against their [professors’] own will. It is all
status.
systemicallyconnected”(Interviewee3C)andthosethatrejector
resist corruption may be deemed unsuitable for their positions.
They are often politically marginalized and replaced by “little
[gods] that listen” (Interviewee 4C). Here, one’s list of academic
6 IndeksisagradebookinBosnia.
28 A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32
Table4
Listofrelevantvariables.
VARIABLENAME VALUES9 VARIABLETYPE SURVEYQUESTION
PassingviaSocialConnections Yes=1 Dependent 17:Whichformsdoescorruptiontake[98_TD$DIFF]?
No=0 PassingviaSocialConnections?
HouseholdIncome 500KM[99_TD$DIFF]–1500KM=1 Predictor 34:Pleaseindicateyouraveragemonthlyhouseholdincome?
1500KM[100_TD$DIFF]–2500KM=2
2500KM–3500+KM=3
Sex Male=1 Predictor 2:Whatisyourgender?
Female=0
StudentType Excellent=1 Predictor 4:Whattypeofstudentwereyouinhigh-school?
Verygood=2
Good/Satisfactory=3
Father’sPosition [101_TD$DIFF]Worker=1 Predictor 37:Whathasbeenyourfather’shighestposition?
Intellectualbutnotexecutive=2,
Executive=3,
Director/Owner/HeadofOrganization=4
Father’sEducation Elementary=1 Predictor 35.Whatisthehighestdegreeobtainedbyyourfather?
Secondary=2
Two-YearCollege=3
CollegeorHigher=4
CompetencyBelief Always=1 Predictor 10.Arethemostcompetentamongstyourpeersfirsttograduate?
AlmostAlways=2
Often=3
RarelyorNever=4
4.3.1.Students’backgroundonnon-[136_TD$DIFF]pecuniarycorruption:binary sub-setofstudents’backgroundvariablesfromthesurvey(Table4),
logisticregression where these variables have collectively served as a proxy of the
Ourfavorreciprocationtheoryisseededinabroaderideathat student’s social status. Students were extensively questioned on
theelitesdifferentiatethemselvesfromtheothersforthepurpose theirbackgroundandtheirperceptionsofcorruption.Namely,we
ofcontrollingsocietalresources.Theselectionoftheprivilegedfew collecteddataonstudents’householdincome(HouseholdIncome),
isinherentlybasedonprotectingtheelitestatusandcreatingthe students’ past academic performance (Student Type), father’s
access barriers for other groups. When not based on merited education (Father’s Education), father’s position within his
selection, the elites tend to choose their members based on company or institution (Father’s Position[137_TD$DIFF]), gender (Sex), and
backgroundtraits,rangingfromaristocraticlineagetowealth.In students’viewsonwhethercompetenceisrelevantindetermining
the studied context of Bosnia’s higher education, we similarly theefficiencywithwhichtheirpeersgraduate(CompetencyBelief).
theorize that the elites differentiate students based on their Oftheindependentvariables,Father’sPosition[137_TD$DIFF]reflectsstudents’
background traits, including students’ social connectivity to the socialstatusprominentlyasitdifferentiatesbetweenfatherswho
existingelites.Giventhatwearenotprivytotheelite’scomplex areblue-collarworkers,thosewhoarewhite-collarworks,those
and clandestine selection process, we tested whether students’ thatareinexecutivepositions,andtheonesthatleadinstitutional
viewontheexistenceofthekeynon-pecuniaryformofcorruption, entities (Table 4). As for the socio-economic background,
Passing via Social Connections, is indeed determinedbystudents’ Household Income groups participating students into three
background traits. The students’ perceptions of corruption are categories of low, medium, and high income families. We also
presumably indicative of the students’ own experiences with capturedstudents’pastacademicperformancetoprofilethemby
corruption, where the elites are presumably likelier to benefit StudentType:excellent,verygood,good,orsatisfactory(Table4).
whilethepoorersegmentsofthesocietymaybemoreadversely Another variable looked at father’s educational background
affected. (Father’sEducation)bylevelsrangingfromtheprimarytohigher
Ofallnon-pecuniaryformsofcorruption(Fig.2),studentspass education. Sex, a key demographic trait, may also signify
viasocialconnections(PassingviaSocialConnections)isthemost differentialexperiencesand,therefore,viewsofcorruptiongiven
frequently occurring type. This type of corruption allows one to the presence of sexual favors for passing grades. These select
leveragefavorreciprocationstounfairlybenefitineducation.The predictorswerederivedfroma39-question-surveyandappropri-
frequencywithwhichthisformofcorruptionisobservedinour atelycodedfortheuseinthebinarylogisticregression.
data,bothqualitativeandquantitative,providestheinitialyetkey We begin by providing a broader understanding of the
evidencethatfavorreciprocationsareliveandwellamongstthe regressionresultsbeforetacklingthespecificsoftherelationships
sociallypowerfulelites. within the regression model. First, the binary logistic regression
Tofurthertestthisrelationship,wetestedifstudents’beliefin validatedfindingsderivedfromotheraspectsofouranalysis:the
theoccurrenceofPassingviaSocialConnectionscanbeexplained students’viewsonnon-pecuniarycorruptionwerestronglytiedto
usingstudentbackgroundtraits,includingHouseholdIncome,Sex, the students’ background traits, which were reflective of the
StudentType,CompetencyBelief,Father’sPosition,[137_TD$DIFF]Father’sEducation
andStudentType.Directquestionsonthestudents’affiliationwith
theeliteswouldhaveadverselyimpactedstudents’willingnessto
participateinthesurvey.So,toexaminethecomplexrelationofthe 9 Pleasenotethatallvariablesarerecodedasappropriate.Forinstance,iftoofew
elite status and non-pecuniary corruption, we extracted the key observationswereinitiallyrecordedunderaparticularcategory,suchcategorywas
aggregatedwithanothercategory.
A.Sabic-El-Rayess,N.N.Mansur/InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment50(2016)20–32 29
Table5 positions.Evenmoreimportantly,thisrelationshipconfirmedthat
BinarylogisticregressionmodelonPassingviaSocialConnections. there was a significant differential between the students whose
Variable OddsRatio fathersbelongedtothehighestechelonofthesocialhierarchyand
Father’sPosition[102_TD$DIFF](FP1) 0.415* thosewhowereofthelessersocialstanding.Thefinding,inturn,
Worker=1 reinforced our theoretical line of argument that variations in
Allelse=0 perceptions on corruption exist due to differential experiences
betweentheelitesandnon-elites.
Father’sPosition[103_TD$DIFF]2(FP2) 0.260**
To elaborate,the oddsof stating that they viewedPassingvia
Intellectual=1
Allelse=0 SocialConnectionsasoccurringwere0.415(Table5)timeshigher
for those students whose fathers were workers than for those
Father’PositionRank[104_TD$DIFF](FP3) 0.422* students whose fathers were CEOs, Owners, or Directors of
Executive=1
businesses or institutions. Students, with fathers at the top of
Allelse=0
thesocialhierarchy(i.e.CEOs,Owners,andDirectors),belongedto
Father’sEducation1(FE1) 1.231 the referential group7 for this particular predictor. Therefore, all
Elementary=1 othercategorieswithinthepredictorareindividuallycomparedto
Allelse=0 the reference group. Similarly, students whose fathers were
intellectuals or executives in their companies were 0.260
Father’sEducation2(FE2) 1.249
Secondary=1 (p<0.01) and 0.422 (p<0.05) times likelier, respectively, to see
Allelse=0 non-pecuniarycorruptionasoccurringversusnot.
Similarly, the relationship between students’ views on the
Father’sEducation(FE3) 1.125 existenceofnon-pecuniarycorruptionandhouseholdincomewas[138_TD$DIFF]
Two-YearCollege=1
notable.Studentsfromthelowerandmiddle-incomefamilieswere
Allelse=0
2.312(p<0.01)and2.913(p<0.01)timesmorelikely,respective-
HouseholdIncome1(HI1) 2.312*[105_TD$DIFF] ly, to view Passing via Social Connections as existent than the
500KM-1500KM=1 students fromthe households with the highest income.In other
Allelse=0
words,theeliteswerelesslikelytoreportnon-pecuniaryformsof
HouseholdIncome2(HI2) 2.913*[106_TD$DIFF] corruption as the elites constitute the subgroup most likely to
1500KM-2500KM=1 benefitfromtheirsocialconnections.
Allelse=0 Another relationship that proved significant was that of the
student’s gender to his/her view on non-pecuniary corruption.
Sex(Sex) 1.674**[107_TD$DIFF]
Women were significantly more likely to report non-pecuniary
Male=1
Female=0 corruption as existent, and this may be related to the females’
greater exposure to requests for sexual favors. Amongst the
StudentType(ST1) 1.281 studentsinterviewedforthisstudy,onefemalestudentsharedher
Excellent=1
experiencewithsexualrequestsfromafacultymemberthrough-
Allelse=0
outherstudies,resultinginhereventualtransitionfromafull-time
StudentType(ST2) 1.296 to a part-time student and mistrust in the educational system
VeryGood=1 overall. In this model specifically, women were 1.674 (p<0.01)
Allelse=0 times more likelytoseePassingviaSocialConnectionas existent
CompetencyBelief1(CB1) 0.270**[108_TD$DIFF] versus males. Also, those students who firmly believed in
Always=1 competence when it comes to how quickly one graduates in
Allelse=0 Bosnia’shighereducationwerealso0.270timeslikeliertoreport
Passing via SocialConnections as existentrelativetothe students
CompetencyBelief1(CB2) 0.708 who believed competent never graduate first. Reflecting an
AlmostAlways=1
interestingdynamic,studentswhodoubttheroleofcompetence
Allelse=0
inone’sstudycompletionarelesslikelytoreportnon-pecuniary
CompetencyBelief(CB3) 0.659 corruption as existent. Those students may be benefiting from
Often=1 their social connections and, thus, deem competence in the
Allelse=0 graduationprocessanon-factor.Additionally,students’academic
Constant 1.577 profiles did not impact their perceptions of non-pecuniary
Chi-square,df 37.863**[109_TD$DIFF],14 corruption.Similarly,fathers’educationalprofileshadnobearing
%ofCasesCorrectlyPredicted 70.5 on students’ perceptions. Interestingly, no relationship between
[110_TD$DIFF]* p<.01. theacademicsuccessofthestudentsand,similarly,theirfathers’
** p<.001. suggeststhateducationmaynotplaymostprominentlyinforming
students’ views on the state of their educational systems when
corruption creates systemic distortions. It is instead the social
standing and connectivity to the pockets of political, social, and
students’ overall social standing. Namely, the father’s position
economicpowerthatshapethebehaviorsandviewsofstudentsin
withinacompanywasasignificantfactorinwhetherstudentssaw Bosnia’shighereducation.
non-pecuniary corruption as occurring or not. In fact, a student
whose father is a worker, intellectual or even an executive, was
significantlymorelikelytoperceivePassingviaSocialConnections
as existent thanwas the case with students whose father was a
CEO, Director, or owner of the company. This pioneering finding 7 In binary logistic regression, SPSS uses Indicator coding for all categorical
quantified the novel relationship between the students’ percep- variables.Thehighestnumberintermsofcategories(i.e.5ifthecategoriesare1,2,
tions of non-pecuniary corruption and their fathers’ business 3, 4 and 5) is by default the reference groupthat all other groups within the
categoricalvariablearecomparedto.