ERIC ED578858: Utility-Value Intervention with Parents Increases Students' STEM Preparation and Career Pursuit

2017·0.6 MB·English

by  ERIC

Utility-value intervention with parents increases
students’ STEM preparation and career pursuit
ChristopherS.Rozeka,RyanC.Svobodab,Judith M.Harackiewiczc,ChrisS. Hullemand,andJanetS. Hydec,1
aDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,IL60637;bHumanDevelopmentandSocialPolicyProgram,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston,
IL60208;cDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofWisconsin–Madison,Madison,WI53706;anddCenterforAdvancedStudyofTeachingandLearning,
UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville,VA22904
EditedbySusanT.Fiske,PrincetonUniversity,Princeton,NJ,andapprovedDecember16,2016(receivedforreviewMay15,2016)
Duringhighschool,developingcompetenceinscience,technology, examinationscores.Specifically,inarecentstudyofACTtest-takers,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is critically important as only44%metthecollegereadinesslevelformathematicsand36%
preparation to pursue STEM careers, yet students in the United forscience(8).
Stateslagbehindothercountries,ranking35thinmathematicsand Onewaytodevelopstudents’mathematicsandscienceskillsis
27thinscienceachievementinternationally.Giventheimportance to increase enrollment in STEM courses in high school. Re-
ofSTEMcareersasdriversofmoderneconomies,thisdeficiencyin search supports the link between increased exposure to STEM
preparationfor STEMcareers threatensthe United States’ contin- topics in classes and higher STEM achievement (9). However,
ued economic progress. In the present study, we evaluated the studentsareallowedtooptoutofelectiveSTEMcoursesinhigh
long-termeffectsofatheory-basedinterventiondesignedtohelp school, and as a result, many students are not exposed to the
parentsconveytheimportanceofmathematicsandsciencecourses advanced mathematics or science classes necessary to attain
totheirhigh-school–agedchildren.Apriorreportonthisinterven- postsecondarySTEMdegrees.Forexample,in2009only17.8% DS
NE
tionshowedthatitpromotedSTEMcourse-takinginhighschool;in ofhigh-schoolstudentsenrolledinphysicsand21.0%enrolledin ANC
tplehrgoeevcepudrrermpeanarttahfteoomlrlyoawetixc-ausmpaninsdtautsdicoyien,n(wcAeeCsTft)oafunondrdaarddtohizlaeetsdctethneeststinbstcyeo1rrve2espnoetnriocenancitmoille-- cwahlTceuhnleueixsmaomproipnrtrianengcacseltcuuodlfuehsnitg(sh1’0-Ss)cT.hEoMolcSaTrEeeMrppurrespuairtaatfitoenrchaignhbsechseoeonl HOLOGICALNITIVESCIE
panodinAtsC.TGsrecoarteesr)hwigahs-sacshsooocilaSteTdEMwipthreipnacrraetaisoend(SSTTEEMMccaorueresrep-tuarksiunigt and in college. Research shows that advanced high-school mathe- PSYCCOG
matics (e.g., algebra II, calculus) and science (e.g., physics, chem-
(i.e.,STEMcareerinterest,thenumberofcollegeSTEMcourses,and
istry)coursesarecrucialpredictorsof STEMmajorenrollment in
students’attitudestowardSTEM)5yaftertheintervention.These
college (1, 11). Furthermore, in college there is a high degree of
resultssuggestthattheinterventioncanaffectSTEMcareerpur-
attrition from STEM majors. For example, only 62% of students
suit indirectly by increasing high-school STEM preparation. This
between2003and2009whoentered4-ycolleges asSTEMma-
findingunderscorestheimportanceoftargetinghigh-schoolSTEM
jorsgraduatedwithabachelordegreefromaSTEMdomain,and
preparation to increase STEM career pursuit. Overall, these find-
ings demonstrate that a motivational intervention with parents insufficientSTEMpreparationinhighschoolplaysaroleinthis
can have important effects on STEM preparation in high school, lack of persistence toward STEM careers (1, 2, 12). Thus, not
aswellasdownstreameffectsonSTEMcareerpursuit5ylater. only is STEMpreparation in high school lacking, but it also af-
fects entry into STEM majors in college, persistence toward
academicmotivation|educationalintervention|STEMmotivation| thosemajors,andultimately entryintoSTEMcareers.
achievement|parentintervention AlthoughmanyfactorscontributetothelowerlevelsofSTEM
preparation and career pursuit, research in psychology shows
Ascience,technology,engineering,andmathematics(STEM)
“pipelineproblem”existsintheUnitedStates,whereSTEM Significance
careersaregrowingrapidly,yettoofewstudentsarepreparedto
takeadvantageofthem(1).STEMoccupationsareestimatedto The need for students trained in science, technology, engi-
grow by 17% between 2009 and 2018, compared with 9.8% for neering,andmathematics(STEM)jobsisgrowingrapidlyinthe
non-STEM occupations, and it is expected that the majority United States, yet students do not enroll in the necessary
(92%) of all STEM jobs will require some postsecondary edu- courses to prepare for STEM careers. In a randomized con-
cation(2,3).Furthermore,in2008only4%ofbachelordegrees trolled trial, parents in the utility–value intervention group
intheUnitedStateswereearnedinengineering,comparedwith receivedmaterialsdetailingtheimportanceofSTEMfortheir
31% in other countries, such as China (4, 5). Increasing the adolescentsinhighschool.Theinterventionincreasedmathe-
numberofindividualsqualifiedforandactuallypursuingSTEM maticsandscienceACTscoresandcourse-takinginhighschool.
careers can help the United States stay competitive with other Thisgreaterhigh-schoolSTEMpreparationwasassociated,5y
advancing countries and improve the global economy through later,withincreasedSTEMcareerpursuit.Thesefindingssug-
increasedinnovationandtechnology(6,7).Therefore,itisvital gest that educational policies should promote the personal
relevanceofhigh-schoolmathematicsandsciencecoursesand
todevelopapopulationofcollegegraduateswithSTEMdegrees
involveparents in helpingto promote STEM preparation and
tomeet theseever-increasing demands.
careerpursuit.
To increase the pool of STEM workers, we need to increase
thenumberof studentswiththe necessary knowledge andskills
Authorcontributions:C.S.R.,J.M.H.,C.S.H.,andJ.S.H.designedresearch;C.S.R.,R.C.S.,J.M.H.,
needed for STEM careers. Currently, students in the United
andJ.S.H.performedresearch;C.S.R.,R.C.S.,J.M.H.,andJ.S.H.analyzeddata;andC.S.R.,
States lack mathematical and scientific skills when compared R.C.S.,J.M.H.,C.S.H.,andJ.S.H.wrotethepaper.
with students in other nations. In fact, international test score Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.
results show that 15-y-olds in the United States rank 35th in
ThisarticleisaPNASDirectSubmission.
mathematics literacy and 27th in science literacy among par- 1Towhomcorrespondenceshouldbeaddressed.Email:[email protected].
ticipating nations (4, 5). Similar deficits in students’ STEM
Thisarticlecontainssupportinginformationonlineatwww.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
competencearerevealedbyexaminingstudents’collegepreparatory 1073/pnas.1607386114/-/DCSupplemental.
www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1607386114 PNASEarlyEdition | 1of6
that this is, in part, a motivational problem (13). Expectancy- designedtohelpparentscommunicatetheutilityofmathematics
value theory posits that individuals make achievement-related and science to their children would improve students’ STEM
choices,suchashowhardtheywillstudyforatestorthetypesof motivationandachievement.
coursesinwhichthey enroll, based on(i)their expectations for
successand(ii)theirsubjectivetaskvalue(i.e.,theimportanceof CurrentStudy
a task) (13). Expectancy-value theory defines different types of Thereisalonghistoryofso-calledtwo-generationinterventions,
subjectivetaskvalue:intrinsicvalue(ataskisimportantbecause whicharedefinedasinterventionsthatinvolvebothparentsand
itisenjoyable),attainmentvalue(ataskisimportantbecauseitis children (31). Consistent with this tradition of two-generation
related to your identity), and utility value (a task is important interventions,Harackiewiczetal.(32)testedaninterventionthat
because it is relevant or useful for a current or future goal). encouraged parents to communicate the utility value of STEM
Researchershaverecentlyfocusedonincreasingstudents’perceived topicstotheirhigh-school–agedchildren.Parentswererandomly
utilityvaluewithinterventionsbecauseitisviewedasmalleableto assigned to the intervention or control condition, and the in-
outsideforces.Furthermore,correlationalandlongitudinalresearch tervention materials (i.e., two brochures and a website) were
hasshownthatutilityvalueisasignificantpredictorofmathematics distributed to parents when their children were in the 10th and
andsciencecourse-takingandSTEMmajorenrollment(1,14,15). 11th grades of high school. Intervention materials provided in-
Thus, intervening to increase students’ perceived utility value in formation about the utility and relevance of mathematics and
STEMdomainsisonepromisingdirectionforincreasingstudents’ science for high-school students and encouragement to discuss
high-schoolSTEMpreparationaswellasSTEMcareerpursuit. thisinformationwiththeirchild.Inaddition,parentsweregiven
Much of the intervention research has focused on student- advice and recommendations about how to most effectively
centeredinterventionsdesignedtoincreasestudents’utilityvalue communicate this information to their children. For example,
inatopic ortask,eitherbycommunicating utilityvaluedirectly parents were advised to personalize the information to their
tostudents(i.e.,tellingthemwhyitisuseful)oraskingstudents children’s interests and goals by helping their children generate
togeneratetheirownideasaboutwhySTEMtopicsareuseful(i.e., their own connections with STEM topics and supporting these
asking them to write about why it is personally useful) (16, 17). connections with information and examples from the interven-
Results suggest that these student-centered interventions can tion materials. Parents in the control group did not receive any
improve students’ motivation and performance in STEM do- additional materials. Students could only be affected by the in-
mains, but the positive effects of these interventions often de- terventionthroughinteractionswiththeirparentsbecausenone
pend on individual differences. For example, explaining the of the intervention materials were ever directed to students.
utility of a novel math technique improved performance and Harackiewicz et al. (32) found that this intervention increased
interest for students whowere already highly interested or con- students’ STEM course-taking in the 11th and 12th grades of
fident in their mathematics ability (18, 19). Conversely, asking highschoolbyapproximatelyonesemesterofadditionalSTEM
students to write about the utility of STEM topics in their lives course-taking on average. Moreover, Rozek et al. (33) showed
proved to be most effective for students who lacked confidence that those effects were mediated by changes in parents’ and
(20) or who were members of underrepresented groups in col- students’attitudesabout STEMtopics.
leges(21).Forexample,inarandomizedcontrolledtrialinhigh- Thecurrentstudyextendedtheoriginalstudyintwoimportant
schoolscienceclasses,lessconfidentstudentswhowereaskedto ways: first, we investigated if this parental intervention affected
writeabouttheutilityofthecourseshowedincreasedinterestin students’ mathematics and science achievement in high school;
scienceandhighersciencegradesthanless-confidentstudentsin second,weconducteda5-yfollow-upwhentheparticipantswere
thecontrolgroup(20).Althoughthesestudiessuggestthatutility- 20-y-old to examine students’ STEM career aspirations, college
value interventions have positive effects for particular subgroups, STEM course-taking, likelihood of choosing a STEM major in
utility-valueinterventionsthatcombinedirectcommunicationof college, and perceptions of STEM value. To examine academic
utility value with a self-generated component show a more uni- achievement as an additional measure of students’ high-school
versal positive effect on students’ motivation and performance STEMpreparation, we collectedand analyzedstudents’college
(22). Furthermore, larger-scale randomized controlled trials preparatory standardized test scores (i.e., ACT scores) from
have confirmed that the effects found in initial studies can im- their high-school records. Scores on this test reflect knowledge
prove high-school and college students’ motivation at scale and accrued from mathematics and science courses taken in high
withrepresentativegroupsofstudents(21,23).Overall,findings school, and we hypothesized that scores would be higher in the
from these student-centered intervention studies demonstrate intervention condition, given that those students enrolled in
consistent positive causal effects of utility value on motivation, more STEM courses. Furthermore, we tracked participants 5 y
interest,andacademic performance (16,17,24). after the initial intervention (age 20) to assess long-term inter-
Eventhoughstudent-centeredinterventionshavebeenshown vention effects on posthigh-school STEM career pursuit out-
to be successful, schools do not always have the class time, the comes.Atthistime,weaskedstudentsaboutthetypeofcareer
teacher training time, or the resources available to implement theydesired,howmanySTEMcoursestheyhadtakenincollege,
these interventions in classrooms. One alternative and poten- their current plans for their college major, and about their
tially powerful route for increasing students’ perception of the STEMattitudes.
relevanceofSTEMtopicsisbyengagingtheirparents,giventhat Thegoalofthecurrentstudywastoexaminetheeffectsofthe
parentsplayacriticalroleinshapingtheirstudents’motivational intervention on an additional high-school STEM preparation
beliefs (25, 26). Past research shows that parents’ motivational variable (i.e., ACT scores), as well as downstream effects on
beliefs, such as the importance they place on mathematics and posthigh-school STEM career pursuit. First, we hypothesized
science for their child, predict their children’s motivational be- that this parent-centered utility-value intervention would in-
liefs andeducational outcomes inthose subject areas (27).Par- crease students’ mathematics and science ACT scores, in addi-
entsarehypothesizedtoaffecttheirchildren’sattitudesthrough tion to the already documented effects on 11th and 12th grade
multiple mechanisms, including parents’ behaviors (28, 29) and mathematics and science course-taking. Second, we predicted
the quality of parents’ conversations with their children (30). thattheseeffectsonhigh-schooloutcomeswouldbetterprepare
These correlational findings suggest that parents can play an students for STEM careers. Thus, we predicted that the in-
important role in communicating utility-value beliefs to their tervention would have long-term positive effects on posthigh-
childrenandinincreasingtheirchildren’sSTEMmotivationand school STEM career pursuit (i.e., college STEM course-taking,
career pursuit. Therefore, we tested whether an intervention the likelihood of choosing a STEM major, self-reported STEM
2of6 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1607386114 Rozeketal.
allowed to correlate in the model, but we cannot determine if
Post-High School
High School STEM STEM Career Pursuit: increasedcourse-takingledtohigherACTscoresorvice-versa.
Preparation: STEM Career Aspirations AncillaryACTscoreanalysis.Supplemental analyses were also con-
Intervention STEM Course-Taking College STEM Course-Taking
STEM ACT Scores College STEM Major ducted to examine if there was a difference on preintervention
Perceived STEM Value performanceandifcontrollingforpreintervention performance
changed the intervention effect on mathematics and science
Fig.1. Theoreticalmodelofhowtheinterventionshouldhavelong-term ACTscore(TableS3).Accordingly,wecollectedandexamined
effectsonSTEMcareerpursuitthroughincreasedSTEMpreparationinhigh high-schoolstatestandardizedmathematicsandsciencetestscores
school. for students from before the intervention [10th grade Wisconsin
Knowledge and Concepts Examination (WKCE) scores] and
foundnosignificant difference between intervention and control
value,andwhetherstudentsaspiredtoaSTEMcareer5yafter groups on students’ preintervention test scores (z = −0.29, β =
the initial intervention) to the extent that the intervention im- −0.03, P = 0.77). Moreover, even when controlling for these
proved students’ high-school STEM preparation. Although the
preinterventiontestscores,thepositiveeffectoftheintervention
interventioncouldalsodirectlyaffectposthigh-schooloutcomes, onmathematicsandscienceACTscorewassignificant(z=3.61,
research on the lasting effects of psychological interventions β= 0.20,P<0.001).
suggeststhattheyaremaintainedbyinitiatingachainofpositive Direct intervention effects on posthigh-school STEM career pursuit. We
recursive processes (34). That is, the intervention may change estimated a secondary model that was identical to the main
some outcome (behavior or psychological process) in the short structural equation model, except that high-school STEM course-
term,andthatoutcomethenhasaneffectonlateroutcomes.We takingandACTscoreswerenotincluded.Thisapproachallowedus
tested our hypothesis by examining the indirect effect of the to assess whether the intervention directly affected posthigh-
intervention on STEM career pursuit variables via high-school school outcomes. There were no significant direct intervention
STEMpreparationvariables.Inall,thisstudyisuniqueinterms effects onposthigh-school STEMcareer pursuit variables (Ps > DS
ofbeingabletotestboththeshort-termandlong-termeffectsof 0.36)(TableS4). ANCE
N
aprceopsatr-aetfifoenctiavnedpcaarreenetr-cpeunrtseurietdouintcteormveens.tion on critical STEM ASpTsrEseoMpcaiacratairoteinoesrnbpveuatrwrsiueaietbn.leNhsiegwxht-e,srcewhoeporlteeSdsTtiEceMtdoprwsrehopefatrhpaeotirsotnhhiaiggnhhd--sspccohhsotohooigllhSS-sTTcEEhoMMol OLOGICALTIVESCIE
RSteastuislttiscs and Correlations. Descriptive statistics and zero-order cwaarseearspigunrisfuiciatnotuptcroedmicetso.rMoaftchoelmleagteicSsTaEndMsccoieunrcsee-tAaCkiTngsc(zor=e PSYCHCOGNI
correlationsare reportedinTableS1. 2.36,β=0.26,P=0.02),suchthatstudents withhighermathe-
maticsandscienceACTscoresenrolledinmorecollegeSTEM
StructuralEquationModel.Weusedstructuralequationmodeling
toexaminetherelationshipsbetweenvariablesovertimeduring
andafterhighschool(seeFig.1forthetheoreticalmodel).There
A
were seven base predictors for our model, which were used to
predict all high-school and posthigh-school outcomes: the inter- 27
vention(+1forinterventiongroupand−1forcontrolgroup),stu-
dents’ gender (+1 for male and −1 for female), level of parental 26
e
education (z-scored), and all resulting two-way interactions as or
c
S25
well as the three-way interaction between the intervention, stu- T
dents’gender,andparentaleducation. AC
e 24 Control Group
We hypothesized that increased high-school STEM prepara- enc Intervention Group
tion would have positive long-term effects on posthigh-school ci
S23
STEM career pursuit; we therefore allowed mathematics and ath/
M
scienceACT scores andmathematics and science course-taking 22
in11thand12thgradetopredicttheposthigh-schooloutcomes,
along with the base predictors. All variables measured at the 21
Experimental Condition
sametimepoint(e.g.,highschool)wereallowedtocorrelate.To
assessthelong-termeffectoftheinterventiononposthigh-school B
STEM career pursuit, we examined the total indirect effect of 85
the intervention on posthigh-school outcomes through high- 81
school variables (35). Missing data were accounted for by using elitn80
full information maximum-likelihood methods (36). The model e
c
was saturated, which does not allow for a meaningful test of reP T75
model fit. For additional information on the model and mea- C
A Control Group
sures, see SI Materials and Methods (Table S2 summarizes the e
cn70 69 Intervention Group
significantdirect andindirecteffects). e
ic
Direct intervention effects on high-school STEM preparation. The in- S/h
tervention had a significant effect on mathematics and science taM65
ACTscore (z = 2.46,β= 0.19, P< 0.05)(Fig.2A)and, as pre-
viouslyreported(32),11thand12thgradeSTEMcourse-taking 60 Experimental Condition
(z = 2.22, β = 0.16, P < 0.05). Specifically, the intervention in-
creased mathematics and science ACT scores by about 12 per- Fig.2. EffectsoftheinterventiononACTscores.Theinterventionsignifi-
centilepoints(Fig.2B)and11thand12thgradeSTEMcourse- cantlyimprovedmathematicsandscienceACTscores(A),translatingtoa12
percentilepointincrease(B).Effectsaresignificant,evenwhencontrolling
takingbynearlyonesemester(0.81semesters).Becausestudents forstudents’performanceonstatehigh-schoolstandardizedmathematics
wereenrollingin11thand12thgradeSTEMcoursesandtaking andsciencetestsgivenbeforetheintervention.Errorbarsrepresent±1SEof
the ACT during the same time period, these variables were themean.
Rozeketal. PNASEarlyEdition | 3of6
classes.High-schoolmathematicsandsciencecourse-takingwas outcomes, although the longitudinal design strengthens the evi-
a significant predictor of students’ college STEM course-taking dence. Rather, we believe that our findings highlight a pathway
(z = 3.77, β = 0.34, P < 0.01), the likelihood that students’ de- through which interventions may work by starting a positive re-
sired a STEM major (z = 2.82, β = 0.29, P < 0.01), perceived cursive process in which success in high school begets success
STEM value (z = 2.29, β = 0.22, P = 0.02), and STEM career afterhighschool inthe STEMdomain.
aspirations(z=3.13,β=0.30,P<0.01).Thus,mathematicsand
Discussion
sciencecourse-takinginhighschoolwasasignificantpredictorof
allposthigh-schooloutcomes,suchthatstudentswhoenrolledin Given the need to promote preparation and career pursuit in
morehigh-schoolmathematicsandsciencecoursesalsoenrolled STEM domains in the United States (1–3), the goal of this
in more college mathematics and science courses, were more project was to develop and test an intervention that engaged
likely to desire a STEM major, valued STEM topics more, and parents to encourage their children to take STEM courses in
were more likely to aspire to a STEM career. Overall, these highschool.Werandomlyassignedfamiliestoaninterventionor
resultssuggestthathigh-schoolSTEMpreparationisimplicated controlgroup,andinterventiongroupparentsreceivedmaterials
inposthigh-schoolSTEMcareerpursuit.Inthismodel,noneof about the relevance of mathematics and science for their chil-
the base predictors showed significant direct effects on college drenandencouragementtodiscusstherelevanceofthesetopics
outcomes, indicating that the intervention may affect posthigh- with their children during high school. Previous reports on this
schooloutcomes indirectly. intervention found that it increased mathematics and science
Indirecteffectsoftheinterventiononposthigh-schoolSTEMcareerpursuit course-takinginhighschool(32).Thecurrentstudyfollowedup
throughhigh-schoolSTEMpreparation.Finally,wetestedforindirect onthosefindingsbyexaminingtheeffectoftheinterventionon
effects of the intervention (37, 38). We hypothesized that the standardized test scores in high school as well as the long-term
intervention would increase posthigh-school STEM career pur- effects of increased high-school STEM preparation on STEM
suit to the degree that it increased high-school STEM prepara- careerpursuitafterhighschool.Wefoundthattheintervention
tion (i.e., mathematics and science ACT scores and 11th and improved performance on ACT mathematics and science test
12th grade mathematics and science course-taking). We tested scores by 12 percentile points. Consistent with a recursive pro-
thishypothesisbyexaminingthetotalindirecteffectoneachof cess model whereby an initial improvement spurs on later posi-
the posthigh-school outcomes through the two high-school STEM tive outcomes (34), greater STEM preparation in high school
preparation variables. That is, we examined how intervention- was associated with increased STEM career pursuit after high
induced changes in high-school STEM preparation were asso- school (i.e., STEM course-taking in college, STEM career aspi-
ciated with increased STEM career pursuit after high school. rations,andperceived STEMvalue).
These results suggest that students’ motivation is one key
Resultsshowedthattherewasasignificantindirecteffectofthe
factorthatcanbeleveragedtoenhanceSTEMcompetenceand
intervention on all but one of the posthigh-school outcomes.
career pursuit. Recent research has shown that precise, theory-
Specifically, there were significant indirect effects of the in-
tervention oncollegeSTEMcourse-taking (z=2.54,P= 0.01), driven social-psychological interventions can have powerful and
STEM career aspirations (z = 2.19, P = 0.03), and perceived long-lasting effects on educational outcomes when applied di-
STEMvalue(z=2.15,P=0.03).Thetotalindirecteffectonthe rectlywithstudentsinschools(16,17,39).Thisstudycontributes
likelihood of desiring a STEM major was not significant (z = to that body of knowledge by showing that parents are an ad-
1.67, P = 0.09). These results suggest that the intervention can ditional resource that can be engaged to promote important
student outcomes. These results are also consistent with expec-
influence posthigh-school STEM career pursuit indirectly,
tancy-value theory, which predicts that increasing the personal
through intervention effects on high-school STEM preparation
relevance of topics will increase motivation and achievement
outcomes(seeFig.3forasummarypathmodeloftheseeffects).
(13) and points to the important role of parents in helping
Because the link between high-school STEM preparation and
children to develop their motivational beliefs (25–27). Prior re-
posthigh-school STEM career pursuit variables is correlational,
searchonparents’utility-valuebeliefsandstudents’outcomesis
we cannot infer a causal effect of the intervention on these
correlational,sothisprojectshowsthatparentscanplayacausal
role in improving students’motivation byhelping their children
tofindtheutility andrelevance inwhattheyare learning.
College STEM The current study underscores the value of parents as com-
0.26 Course-Taking municators of STEM information to their children. Although
parental involvement declines from elementary school to high
Mathematics and
school, it is still associated with academic success during the
0.19 SciSencocere AsCT 0.34 0.30 SATsEpMir aCtiaorneser high-school years (40) and when it is the right type of involve-
ment, such as emphasizing the personal relevance and impor-
Intervention 0.25
tance of course material (41). However, little research has
0.16 11thand 12th 0.22 Students’ STEM examinedtheefficacyofinterventionswithparentsorfocusedon
Grade STEM Value investigatingifthereisapositiveeffectofprovidingparentswith
Course-Taking resources to help promote optimal types of parental involve-
0.29
ment.Thecurrentstudydoesjustthisbyprovidingparentswith
College STEM
informationandstrategiestospureffectivecommunicationwith
Major
theiradolescents about STEMtopics.
Fig. 3. Primary empirical path model. The effect of the intervention on Interventions directed at parents, in comparison with those
high-schooloutcomes(i.e.,mathematicsandscienceACTscoresandcourse- directed at students, have many advantages. First, the interven-
taking)aswellasoutcomesmeasured5yaftertheintervention,including tion can change parents’ behavior over the long term, so that
collegeSTEMcourse-taking,STEMcareeraspirations,STEMmotivation,and pro-STEMmessagesarereinforcedovertime(e.g.,withmultiple
college STEM major. The intervention affected 5-y outcomes through
conversations between parents and children). In contrast, stu-
mathematicsandscienceACTscoresand11th/12thgradeSTEMcourse-tak-
dent-centeredclassroominterventionsarelimitedbythenumber
ing.Theonlyindirecteffectthatisnotsignificantisfromtheinterventionto
college STEM major (z = 1.67, P = 0.09). All paths between subsequent of times that they are implemented in the classroom (17). Sec-
variablesweretested,butonlysignificantpathsareshown.Numbersrep- ond, a parent-centered intervention can lead to a more cus-
resentstandardizedβ-weights. tomizedimplementation(e.g.,byallowingparentstodecidehow
4of6 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1607386114 Rozeketal.
tobestuseinterventionmaterialswiththeirchild)andallowfor variablecouldberesponsibleforthislastingeffectinsteadofthe
one-on-one conversations, whereas teacher-led interventions intervention. Nevertheless, an indirect effect is consistent with
often require less individualized communication, given the lo- our contention that the intervention had lasting effects on im-
gistics of the classroom. For example, one parent might know portantSTEMoutcomes.Anindirecteffectsanalysisispowerful
that their child reacts well to direct conversations, whereas an- because it moves further down the causal chain by testing the
otherparentmightknowthattheirchilddoesnotlearnwellfrom more proximal effect of an initial mechanism (e.g., high-school
directconversationsandpreferstoexploreinformationontheir STEM preparation) on the distal outcome (e.g., STEM career
own. Third, these interventions can capitalize on parents’ expe- pursuit)(34,37,38,44).
riencesandhistorywiththeirchildrentofacilitatepersonalizing In conclusion, based on the findings from the current and
the relevance of STEM topics by making connections to their previous utility-value intervention studies (16, 39), there is
children’sspecificinterests.Althoughthesearestrengthsofparent- mountingevidencethatpromotingtherelevanceofSTEMtopics
centeredinterventions,thisdoesnotguaranteethatallparentswill for students is an effective method for increasing students’
effectively communicate the information to their children. More- STEMachievement,careerpursuit,andmotivation.Inaddition,
over, other types of interventions (e.g., student-centered interven- theseinterventionsarecost-effectivetoimplement;forexample,
tions) show great promise as well (17), and the most effective the parent-centered utility value intervention was comprised of
method to improve students’ educational outcomes likely involves two informational brochures and access to a website. However,
careful intervention at multiple levels with students (e.g., parents, recent recommendations from the US Congress and the De-
teachers,peers)toleverageallavailableresources. partment of Education make no mention of this psychological
Finally, although we found that this intervention was equally perspectiveasawaytogrowSTEMeducationandalleviatethe
effectiveforbothhighandlowsocioeconomicstatus(SES)families “pipeline problem” (45). Instead, recommendations center on
in our sample, we note that the intervention effect on ACT per- increasing the budget for STEM classes and resources from
formancewasequivalent to about 50%of the SES gap onmathe- kindergarten through 12th grade. Although increasing STEM-
maticsandsciencetestscoreperformance.Giventhelowenrollment educationfundingwilllikelyincreaseoverallSTEMpreparation, DS
ratesoflowSESgroupsinSTEMcourses(e.g.,only11.3%oflow the body of research on STEM motivation in general—and on ANCE
N
SoSEEfhSSigs(ht4u2dS)eE,nSptassrteeunndrteo-nclletsnin)te(pr1re0ed)caaulnctiduliltguyes-vnoaerlruaceallaicncuhtleuiersvveceonmmtieopnnatsrgemadpiswghirttehlba3te9ed.o6n%toe uttaotniplciitceys-ovaafslutoaenrgeienpttieanrtghvewsntautyidoetnonstpsi’nropmpsyaocrthteioclufoulgaritrch—aelrhbiSgeThlilEeigfMshtasebntohguaetgeiSmmTpEeonMrt-. OLOGICALTIVESCIE
wgraoyuptsoanindcrreeadsueceSpTeErsMistecnotuarcsehieevnermolelmntegnatpsf.oIrnuandddeitriroenp,rbeesecanutesde Otavkeinraglla,fpinsydcihnogslofgriocmaltahpeprcouarrcehnttosttuhdeypermespehnatsiSzTeEthMe vpaiplueelinoef PSYCHCOGNI
STEMjobsareprojectedtogrowinthefutureandoftenpaywell(2, problem.
3),interventionsthatincreaserepresentationoflowSESgroupsin
MaterialsandMethods
STEM fields might help to reduce persistent unemployment and
incomeinequalitygapsaswell. Participants. The participating families were originally recruited from the
Althoughthecurrentstudyshowedinitialevidencetosupport stateofWisconsinin1990–1991when motherswerepregnantwiththeir
this type of parent-centered intervention in helping to address childrenaspartofalongitudinalstudywithvariousaimsovertheyears(see
STEM pipeline problems, there are several limitations to this SIMaterialsandMethodsforadditionalinformation).Thecurrentsample
included181families(543participantsincludingparentsandchildren)with
studythatshouldbeaddressedinfutureresearch.First,thesample
studentswhoattended108differenthighschools,mostlyremaininginthe
inthisstudywasrecruitedinWisconsinandmaynotberepresen-
stateofWisconsin.Participatingstudentsandparentsprovidedwrittenin-
tativeoftheoverallpopulationintheUnitedStates.Otherstudies
formedassentandconsentapprovedbytheInstitutionalReviewBoardat
haveshownthatutility-valueinterventionsshowsimilareffectsfor theUniversityofWisconsin–Madison.Therewere100students(47%female)
individuals from diverse racial and SES groups (20, 21), and two- in the control group, and 81 students (48% female) in the intervention
generation interventions have been shown to be effective even in group,andtheracialbreakdownofparticipantsreflectedthepopulationof
verylowSESpopulations(43),butfuturestudiesareneededtotest Wisconsiningeneral(90%White)(46).
this type of parent-centered utility-value intervention in more di-
verse populations to show that the effects generalize to various Procedure.Thecurrentstudyinvolvedparentsandstudentsforatimeperiod
racialandSESgroups.Second,thefamiliesinthisstudyhadbeen of5y,startingwhenthestudentswerein10thgradeinhighschool.Variables
of interest included students’ 10th grade standardized state test scores
partofanongoinglongitudinalstudyformanyyears,whichmight
(WKCEscores),students’STEMcourse-takingduring11thand12thgradeof
have increased the level of engagement that parents had with in- high school, students’ mathematics and science ACT scores, and students’
tervention materials. This means that parents in the current study
surveyresponses5yafterthebeginningof10thgrade.Theposthigh-school
might have been more likely to use intervention materials than a surveyassessedfourself-reportedoutcomemeasures:STEMcareeraspira-
newlyrecruited groupof parentswouldbebecausetheparents in tions, college STEM course-taking, desired college major, and perceived
this study were accustomed to participating in study activities. STEMvalue.Familieswererandomlyassignedtotheinterventionorcontrol
Future studies should take this into account and ensure that group, and intervention group parents were sent intervention materials
parentsengagewithinterventionmaterialsathighenoughrates during10thand11thgrade,whereascontrolgroupparentsweresentno
to see similar gains in students’ outcomes. Third, although this materials.Specifically,parentsintheinterventiongroupreceivedabrochure
inthefallof10thgrade,anotherbrochureinJanuaryof11thgrade,and
studyinvolved181familiesand543totalparticipants,including
accesstoawebsiteinJanuaryof11thgrade.Thebrochuresandwebsites
parentsandchildreninallofthefamilies,futurestudiesshould
gaveinformationabouttheutilityofvariousSTEMtopicsforadolescents,
examine these effects in larger samples to demonstrate the
encouragement to communicate this information, and advice about how
scalabilityoftheseresults.Onepossibilitywouldinvolveworking parentsmightmosteffectivelycommunicatethisinformationtotheirchil-
directlywithschooldistrictstoengageparentsintheseactivities dren. A previous report showed that 86% of the parents (either mother,
withtheirchildren. father, or both) reported remembering and using the intervention mate-
Finally, although we found a direct effect of the intervention rials,and75%oftheadolescentsconfirmedexposuretotheintervention
ontwoindicatorsofSTEMpreparation(ACTscoresandSTEM materials from their parents, demonstrating a highdegree of overall en-
course-taking),wedidnotfinddirecteffectsonposthigh-school gagement with the intervention (32). See SI Materials and Methods for
furtherdetailsoninterventionmaterialsandmeasures.
STEMcareerpursuit.Instead,wefoundanindirectpathway:the
intervention improved high-school STEM preparation, which
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.WethankWisconsinStudyofFamiliesandWorkre-
predicted subsequent STEM career pursuit. One limitation of
searchassistantsfortheirhelpinconductingthisresearch;SianBeilockfor
such indirect effects is that they are correlational; thus, a third helpful comments; members of our advisory board (Jacque Eccles, Adam
Rozeketal. PNASEarlyEdition | 5of6
Gamoran, Jo Handelsman, Jenefer Husman, Dominic Johann-Berkel, Ann Sciences, US Department of Education, through Award R305B090009 and
Renninger, and Judith Smetana) for their guidance; and the families of Grant144-NL14totheUniversityofWisconsin–MadisonandthroughAward
theWisconsinStudyofFamiliesandWorkprojectfortheirparticipationover R305B140042toNorthwesternUniversity.Theopinionsexpressedarethose
theyears.ThisresearchwassupportedbyNationalScienceFoundationGrant oftheauthorsanddonotrepresentviewsoftheNationalScienceFounda-
DivisionofResearchOnLearning0814750;andbytheInstituteforEducation tionortheUSDepartmentofEducation.
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