ERIC ED573765: Making Extensive Reading Even More Student Centered

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Jacobs and Renandya, Making extensive reading even more student centered

MAKING EXTENSIVE READING EVEN MORE STUDENT
CENTERED

George M. Jacobs
James Cook University, Singapore
email: [email protected]

Willy A. Renandya
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
email: [email protected]

Article received: 21 July 2014 Final proof received: 4 December 2014

Abstract: This article begins by explaining the student centered learning paradigm. Next,
the article explains various features of a student centered approach to education and how
extensive reading (ER), as it is most often practiced, fits with those features. The bulk of the
article suggests how ER might be implemented to make it even more learner centered.

Keywords: Extensive reading, learner centered, paradigm, schema, positivism, post-
positivism

Humans tend to see the world in patterns, or paradigm no longer works to explain reality.
schema, that we develop based on our Famous examples of what are called
experiences and innate characteristics paradigm shifts are Ptolemeian to
(Ausubel, 1968). Our brains search for, Copernican astronomy and from Newtonian
generate, and recognize such patterns, e.g., to quantum physics. In addition to the
we have patterns for using rice cookers and physical science, paradigm shifts occur in
riding public buses. “Paradigms” are similar many other realms of society, e. g., the art
to patterns, but according to Kuhn (1996, p. world witnessed a shift from Realism to
10), paradigms are broader, and “for a time, Abstract Expressionism.
provide model problems and solutions for a Education has also experienced a
community of practitioners”. paradigm shift, as part of a larger societal
Kuhn (1962) first studied paradigms in paradigm shift from positivism to post-
the physical sciences, particularly how positivism (Berman, 1981; Capra, 1983).
paradigms change. He argued that new Table 1 (from Jacobs & Farrell, 2001)
paradigms develop when scientists contrasts positivism and post-positivism.
recognize that the currently dominant

Table 1: Contrasts between positivism and post-positivism
Positivism Post-Positivism
Emphasis on parts and decontextualization, Emphasis on whole and contextualization
e.g., studying grammar or vocabulary in
isolated sentences, instead of in whole texts
Emphasis on separation, e.g., studying Emphasis on integration, e.g., ESP
language skills, such as reading and (English for Specific Purposes) courses
speaking, as separate courses, and separation that combine learning content, such as
of students‟ lives from what is studied in Business, with learning language
school
Consideration only of the objective and the Consideration also of the subjective and
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quantifiable, e.g., measuring success only by the non-quantifiable, e.g., also measuring
exam scores success by students‟ feelings and attitudes
Reliance on experts and outsider knowledge-- Consideration also of the "average"
researcher as external, e.g., valuing what participants and insider knowledge--
professors say about how to do education researcher as internal, e.g., also valuing
teachers‟ and students‟ views
Knowledge is relatively fixed, with teachers‟ Knowledge changes, and what we thought
task being to transmit that knowledge to we knew may actually be wrong; teachers
students, and students‟ task being to absorb and students have a part in the process of
that knowledge; teachers and students do not questioning and developing knowledge
develop knowledge
Focus on teacher control, e.g., valuing a quiet Focus on student control, as in the final
classroom, where only one person, usually analysis, students are the ones who do the
the teacher, is talking learning
Top-down, e.g., all decisions are made by Bottom-up, e.g., students‟ voices are
administrators or teachers heard by teachers, administrators, and
peers, and teachers‟ voices are heard by
administrators
Attempts to standardize, e.g., using the same Appreciation of diversity, e.g., modifying
teaching method all the time, and using the teaching to include varied and diverse
same materials with all students methods and materials for different
students
Focus on the product and the short-term, e.g., Focus on the process as well, e.g.,
students‟ scores on tests of reading at the end strategies students can use as they read
of the term or year now and long into the future, in their first
language and in other languages

In education, the paradigm shift from learning. [Focus on student control and
the positivism to post-positivism shift saw a bottom-up voices.]
shift from behaviorist psychology toward 2. Learning to learn (Brown, 2014; Torres,
socio-cognitive psychology, also known as 2013; Tseng, Dornyei, & Schmitt, 2006):
social constructivism. The new paradigm in The learning process and acquisition of
education has been called by such names as learning strategies, i.e., learning how to
student centered learning, learner centered learn, is more important than short term
learning, active learning, personalized results, such as test scores, although
learning, engaged learning, and child results also matter. The use of thinking
centered learning. This article uses the term skills provides important strategies for
Student Centered Learning (SCL). Central lifelong learning. [Focus on the process
to SCL is the view that students, not teachers rather than only on the product.]
or materials, are the keys to what and how 3. Learning with peers (Cohen & Lotan,
much learning takes place. Some features of 2014; Jacobs & Kimura, 2013; Johnson,
SCL are listed below. After each feature, in Johnson, & Holubec, 2008): Part of
brackets, is a link to the post-positivist students having more control and part of
paradigm. students learning how to learn involves
1. Student control (Du, 2012; Knowles, learning with peers, not as the only way
1975; Mayr, 2012): Offering students to learn, but as an important stimulus of
more control of their own learning learning. Learning with peers includes
acknowledges students‟ pivotal role, with acquiring the skills and attitudes needed
the hope that greater agency will increase to interact with others. [Focus on
students‟ engagement in their own emotions, e.g., caring about others and
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feeling part of a group; student control; extensive reading, and how it matches the
e.g., students are responsible for their seven features of SCL explained above.
own learning and that of their peers;
appreciation of the learning process, e.g., EXTENSIVE READING AND
developing strategies for learning with STUDENT CENTERED LEARNING
peers, strategies that can be used well This second section of the article briefly
after students‟ formal education has explains extensive reading (ER) and
ended.] discusses how ER as, to the authors‟
4. Diversity (Banks, Cookson, Gay, & understanding, it is most often done,
Hawley, 2001; Gardner, 1993; Johnson & embodies characteristics of the SCL
Johnson, n.d.): Part of the focus on paradigm. Learners do ER when they read
students as the key to learning involves in quantity (Day & Bamford, 1998;
understanding that students differ from Extensive Reading Foundation, 2011; Jacobs
one another and coming to appreciate that & Farrell, 2012). ER derives support from a
differences can facilitate rather than body of research that is wide in terms of
hinder learning. [Appreciation of geographic range, age of learners, reading
diversity and an eagerness to include levels of learners, and languages being
students‟ voices.] learned (Extensive Reading Foundation,
5. Connections to students‟ worlds (Boss, 2014; Krashen, 2011). Overall, this research
2014; Freire, 1970; Kumasi, 2014): SCL suggests many cognitive, linguistic and
seeks to include students‟ needs and affective benefits for the use of ER, such as
interests in the curriculum, e.g., by enhanced skill in reading, grammar,
connecting the curriculum to students‟ spelling, and writing, and greater confidence
lives outside of school. [Consideration of in reading ability (Anderson, 1996;
the average participants. Teachers and Renandya, 2007). Indeed, Bamford & Day
students‟ voices are considered, rather (2004) stated, „Good things happen to
than only those of outside experts. students who read a great deal in the foreign
Learning is contextualized and integrated language. Research studies show they
with students‟ lives and interests.] become better and more confident readers,
6. Teachers as fellow learners (Feiman- they write better, their listening and
Nemser, 2012; Hill, Ball, & Schilling, speaking abilities improve, and their
2008; Jacobs & Farrell, 2001). Teachers vocabularies get richer. In addition, they
do not pose as all knowing sages. develop positive attitudes toward and
Instead, they show students that teachers increased motivation to study the new
too need to learn and that they enjoy language‟ (p. 1). Given the significant
learning. [Teachers and students have a benefits of ER, it is understandable that ELT
role in questioning and developing experts, such as Alan Maley (2005), regard
knowledge. The joy of learning embraces ER as „the single most important way to
the subjective side of education.] improve language proficiency‟ (p. 354).
7. Motivation and the self (Dornyei & Below, ER is discussed with reference
Ushioda, 2009; Kim, 2011; Renandya, to the seven SCL characteristics explained in
2014): Learners who develop a powerful previous sections of this article.
image of their ideal future selves and seek 1. Student control: Typically, in ER,
to acquire and use tools to realize their students choose what they will read from
ideal future self are more likely to what is available in their classrooms, in
achieve success in their learning. libraries, bookshops, and increasingly,
[Inclusion of the subjective and online. Indeed, another term for ER is
appreciation of feelings.] Free Voluntary Reading (Mason, 2006).
The next section of this article looks at Students can select books that are at or
one SCL inspired teaching method, i.e., slightly below/above their levels. They
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can also read materials that are far below 5. Connections to students‟ worlds:
their current reading levels in order to Fortunately, the range of commercially
further increase their reading confidence. available materials for ER, at least in
Incidentally, reading easy books may also English, continues to grow. However, as
have other benefits. Research suggests materials tend to be written for
that reading easy books can facilitate international audiences, students may
students‟ reading fluency (O‟Shea, have difficulty finding materials that
Sindelar, & O‟Shea, 1985), a necessary reflect the world in which they live.
element in their overall reading Furthermore, materials written even one
competence. Student choice is often or two years earlier may not be in close
guided, e.g., the books in a school library step with current issues. Yes, ER done
may be grouped by difficulty level. Also, with materials that speak of different
teachers may encourage students to spend times and places certainly does have
time reading a book before the students value. The point here is that value can
decide whether they want to borrow it also be found in materials that match
from a library. students‟ current situations, such as
2. Learning to learn: ER may often be materials created locally, e.g., by teachers
paired with Intensive Reading (IR). In and students themselves.
IR, students read materials that may be 6. Teachers as fellow learners: Many
difficult for them to understand on their teachers‟ guides to ER recommend that
own. Thus, IR materials tend to be short, teachers engage in silent reading along
and an entire class may read the same with students in order to demonstrate that
material at the same time, with instruction teachers too read for learning and
by teachers to enhance students‟ enjoyment (Day & Bamford, 2002).
understanding. During IR, teachers often Teachers may read materials that match
offer instruction in the use of relevant students‟ reading levels and interests, or
strategies, such as guessing word they may read materials that match
meaning from context, summarizing, and teachers‟ own reading levels and
connecting what is being read to one‟s interests.
own experiences. These strategies assist 7. Motivation and the self. Motivation is
students when they do ER. As a result, closely linked to ER. Many ER experts
IR and ER can complement one another. agree that motivation is a key ingredient
3. Learning with peers: To our knowledge, of successful ER programs. Students will
peer interaction is not a standard part of not read in quantity, and therefore will
ER programs. Instead, students read on not gain the full benefits of ER, unless
their own and most often work alone to they can find reading materials that are
do post reading activities, if any are cognitively and affectively appealing to
required, and post reading activities of them. The high level of enjoyment that
some kind usually are part of ER students derive from their self-selected
programs. reading is often used as an indicator of
4. Diversity: ER fits well with the idea of success in ER (Day, 2011).
catering to students‟ diverse interests, The next and final section of this article
because students can choose to read those offers suggestions for enhancing the fit
materials which interest them. For between SCL and ER.
instance, students who enjoy non-fiction
can select such books, whereas students MAKING ER EVEN MORE STUDENT
who prefer fantasy can read fantasy CENTERED
books. Also, students can choose reading The third and last section of this article
materials that fit their current reading suggests ways that ER can even better
levels. promote SCL. None of the suggestions
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below is original. The hope is that the ideas often in conjunction with teacher
explained here can be used more widely. assessment.
Also, the authors appreciate that learning Here are some tasks that can accompany
contexts differ widely, and that what works ER.
in one context may not be appropriate in a. Give a review (can be oral or written)
other contexts. of the book to convince others to read
1. Student control: In addition to students or not read it.
selecting the books they will read, b. Tell/Write about the most
students can also have a role in selecting interesting/important/exciting part of
the books and other materials that make the book.
up the pool of materials from which c. Read aloud an interesting/
students make their reading selections. In exciting/well-written part of the book.
other words, students can have a role in Perhaps, change your voice (e.g.,
deciding which books are in their accent, high/low, excited/sad) at
classroom libraries and their school various points while reading aloud.
libraries. Here are examples of how this d. Role play the story or parts thereof.
can happen. e. Tell about something you learned from
a. If books are ordered from catalogues the book. For example, you might
or purchased at book fairs, students have learned children‟s feeling when
can be involved in the selection their parents pass away.
process. f. Use the knowledge gained from the
b. Students and their families can donate book to do something. For example, if
books, new or used. For instance, the you read a book about badminton, you
donation can take place on students‟ could use the book to play badminton
birthdays. Alternatively, graduating better. Explain how the book helped
students can donate books as a way of you.
leaving something of themselves g. Design front and back covers for the
behind. Donated books can contain book, with a drawing on the front and
notes from the donors for future a summary/blurb on the back. An
readers. alternative to drawing would be
c. Students can find reading material on graphics, photographs, words, colour
the web that might work for designs, collages, and combinations of
themselves and their peers. these.
2. Assessment of ER is another area in h. Design a bookmark to suit the book. It
which students can exercise some control. can strictly be visual or it can contain
Two areas under assessment are: (i) what words.
students do for assessment tasks, and (ii) i. Paint a mural/draw illustrations/do a
who assesses those tasks. While some cartoon version of the book or of one
experts (e.g., Krashen, 2011) argue part.
against the routine use of tasks to j. Create a mobile from a coat hanger,
accompany ER, others have suggested a etc. The mobile can display
wide array of possible tasks (Bamford & information about the book, key ideas
Day, 2004; Burke, n.d.; Jacobs & Farrell, (or characters or events), and reactions
2012). Student control increases when to/ratings of the book.
students have a role in choosing which k. Design a poster to advertise the book.
tasks they will do (including perhaps l. Draw/use a map to show important
designing their own tasks), developing places/routes in the book. Explain why
assessment criteria for those tasks, and they are important.
participating in self and peer assessment,
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m. Draw a mind map or similar graphic x. Look for websites related to the book
organizer to represent what happens in and/or the author. When found, these
the book. websites can be shared with others via
n. Do a flow chart/story board of the a class list or a post-it note in the book.
events in the story. Many authors nowadays have websites
o. Create a timeline of events in the or webpages.
book, perhaps with some text to help y. Write a poem inspired by the book.
people understand the events in the Remember that there are many simple
timeline. poetry forms, such as acrostics.
p. Do “Book in a Bag.” After reading a z. Take a well-known song, nursery
book, decorate the outside of a paper rhyme, etc. and make new words for it
bag to go with the book, and put based on the book. Perform your song,
various book-related items in the bag. etc. for others.
Students present their bags to aa. Write an online review of the book
groupmates. Boxes, large envelopes, for a website such as Amazon.
etc. can be used instead of bags. bb. Write a newspaper article, with a
q. Create a collage based on the book. headline, about the events,
r. Do “Submarine Sandwich Books,” characters, or information in the
adapted from http://www.education- book. You could write a want ad or
world.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson109. an editorial. The article could go in a
shtml. Various aspects of the book are real student publication.
represented by different items that cc. Tell about the character(s) you like
students use to make their sub best and why.
sandwich. For example, the bread at dd. Summarize and retell the story.
the top can be the title and the bread at ee. Copy interesting words and
the bottom is the author. The sauce can expressions into a notebook. Do
be what the reader liked most about things with these words and
the book. Various other ingredients expressions, such as define, illustrate
can be the plot, character, setting, and via drawings, give examples, use
words learned. The moral of the them to communicate with other
activity: We‟re hungry for books! people, or create a crossword puzzle
s. Compare the book with a movie/TV with them.
version of the same book. ff. Imagine you are a character in the
t. Read the same book in another story. Would you have made
language, e.g., if you speak English different decisions, said something
and are learning Spanish, read a book differently and taken different
in English first and then in Spanish. actions? If you were the character in
u. Read a different version of the same the present day, how would you
book, e.g., read a comic book or an behave differently?
abridged/simplified version and then gg. Imagine that a character in the story
read the unabridged version. became a student at your school.
v. Read another book on the same topic How would they dress? How would
and compare them, e.g., a biography they behave? How would students,
and an autobiography of the same teachers, you, and others react to
person. them?
w. Record an important segment of the hh. Write an outline of a sequel to the
book with the necessary introduction. story. A shorter form of this would
The segment can be abridged in order be an epilogue that briefly tells what
to make it more interesting to listeners. happened later to the book‟s
Sound effects can be added. characters and perhaps, aspects of the
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setting, e.g., a village where some of letter on each page with an
the characters lived. explanation of the word that they
ii. Write an outline of a prequel to the chose. Each page should have some
story. sort of illustration or decoration.
jj. Use three words to describe the book, pp. Don‟t do anything; just get another
e.g., engaging, surprising, gripping. book and start reading it.
kk. Write a short note to the next reader 3. Learning to learn: One category of
of the book, e.g., you might want to learning strategies that might be bolstered
explain something that will help the in ER programs involves thinking skills
next reader better appreciate the (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2010).
book. These notes will stay in the These skills could come into play before,
book to be read by all future readers. during, and after reading. Examples of
Perhaps an envelope can be attached thinking skills and how they might be
to the inside front cover of the book integrated with ER include:
to hold these notes. Similarly, a a. Students keep a reading diary, in
library pocket can be pasted onto the which they reflect on their reactions to
inside back cover and note cards can what they read (Carlisle, 2000)
be placed in the pocket. Also, post-its b. Students select from a range of
can be used. The next reader can also thinking questions and respond to the
write, to agree, disagree, or add to selected question(s) before, during, or
what earlier readers wrote, so that after reading. Bloom‟s Taxonomy of
there is a dialogue about the book. Educational Objectives (Bloom,
ll. Write letters to one of the characters Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl,
or from one character to another. If 1956) is one tool for generating such
possible, find someone else who read questions (Godhino, 2013). Here‟s a
the same book, and do an exchange website that provides sample questions
with them. They reply as the using Bloom‟s taxonomy:
character to whom you write, and http://www.nmmu.ac.za/cyberhunts/bl
you reply as the character to whom oom.htm
they write. c. Peers can hold discussions and can ask
mm. Write a letter to the author(s) of your each other to elaborate on their
book. And, nowadays, many authors statements.
have websites (their own or their 4. Learning with peers: Students can interact
publishers) to which you can send a with one another in a variety of ways as
letter/email and have some hope of a part of ER (Jacobs & Gallo, 2002).
reply. Students can form reading groups (or
nn. Keep a reading response journal. literature circles) in which they select
Once a week, use the journal as a books to read together and discuss
place to write about what you have various aspects of the contents of the
read. Classmates and/or the teacher book, including the main characters of the
read and respond to your entries. story, the plot, serious and hilarious
oo. Create an ABC book based on the events, the ending and possible sequel.
book you read. You take each letter Benefits on peer interaction related to ER
of the alphabet and come up with a include:
significant word that begins with that a. Students can motivate each other to
letter. This could be a character‟s read more.
name, a place, or a word pertaining b. Students can offer each other
to a theme or emotion that takes suggestions of what to read or not read
place in the book. Then, students c. Students can help each other
create some sort of book with one understand what they are reading.
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They can also share specific strategies their students to read. For instance,
that they use to read faster and with teachers model good reading habits and
deeper comprehension and greater behaviors, make available interesting and
enjoyment. relevant ER materials, and organize
d. Discussing with peers can enhance appealing post-reading activities. These
student enjoyment of reading and can are important, of course, but research
push them to think more deeply about suggests that when the source of
what they read. As Freire (1970, cited motivation is internal, rather than
in Crookes, 2013, p. 62) stated, “Only external, students tend to become more
dialogue, which requires critical committed in their learning (Taboada,
thinking, is also capable of generating Tonks, Wigfield, & Guthrie, 2012).
critical thinking. Without dialogue Research on L2 motivation (e.g.,
there is no communication and without Hadfield & Dornyei, 2013) suggests that
communication there can be no true students‟ intrinsic motivation may be
education”. bolstered when they are able to build and
5. Diversity: Materials found by students, in maintain a future self-image as successful
hard copy or online, can add to the L2 users. In the case of ER, students can
diversity of materials available for ER. be encouraged to:
Furthermore, when students share with a. build vivid and positive self-images of
peers about their reading, students gain themselves as successful L2 readers
exposure to new perspectives. b. continually assess the gap between
6. Connections to students‟ worlds: their actual selves and their ideal
Students, with guidance from teachers, future selves
can create ER materials for themselves c. equip themselves with the knowledge
and peers (Dupuy & McQuillan, 1997) or and skills to narrow the gap between
perhaps for younger or less proficient their actual selves and ideal selves
students (Rodgers, 1997). Student d. continually keep their ideal selves
created materials can reflect students‟ alive throughout the tenure of their
immediate, localized concerns. Such studies.
materials (and teachers also can write ER A reading proficiency scale such as that
materials, as explained below) enable developed by the Common European
students and their teachers to, following Framework of Reference for Languages
Freire (1970) and Crookes (2013), read (http://www.linguanet-europa.org/pdfs/self-
and change their world as they read the assessment-grid-en.pdf) can be made
words they and others in their class and available to students. This scale can help
school have written. students assess their actual selves (which
7. Teachers as fellow learners: Teachers too may presently be at the Basic Level of A1 or
can contribute to the pool of ER A2 readers) in relation to their ideal selves
materials. As with student generated (which may be set at the Proficient Level of
materials, teacher generated ER materials C1 or C2 readers). Students become more
need not be long or entirely original. motivated in their learning when they know
Indeed, teacher generated works can be where they presently are and where they
shorter than a page and can be want to be at when they finish their studies.
adaptations (with proper attribution) of
others‟ work. As teachers create CONCLUSION
materials, their writing and publishing This article began by situating extensive
skills improve. reading (ER) as one manifestation of a larger
8. Motivation and the self: To implement paradigm shift that has affected education
ER successfully, teachers are often seen and society generally. In education, one
as playing a central role in motivating name for this shift is student centered
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