ERIC ED571017: Mexican Americans' Educational Barriers and Progress: Is the Magic Key within Reach? PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice. Issue No. 5, Spring 2016

2016·1.3 MB·English

by  ERIC

PERSPECTIVAS
Issues in
Higher Education Policy and Practice
Spring 2016 A Policy Brief Series sponsored by the AAHHE, ETS & UTSA Issue No. 5
Mexican Americans’ Educational Barriers and
Progress: Is the Magic Key Within Reach?
Executive Summary progress and engage intersectional also proffer strategies of resistance
analytic frameworks. We explore that Mexican Americans employ to
This policy brief is based on the how historical events and consequent overcome pernicious stereotypes and
edited book The Magic Key: The practices and policies depleted the prejudicial barriers to educational
Educational Journey of Mexican accumulation of human capital and achievement. Reaffirming how little
Americans from K–12 to College contributed to disinvestments in has changed, we engage in a process
and Beyond (Zambrana & Hurtado, Mexican American communities. of recovering dynamic history to
2015a), which focuses on the This scholarship decenters cultural inform Mexican American scholarship
experiences of Mexican Americans problem-oriented and ethnic- and future policy and practice.
in education. As the largest of the focused deficit arguments and
Latino subgroups with the longest provides substantial evidence of
history in America, and the lowest structural, institutional and normative AUTHORS
levels of educational attainment, racial processes of inequality. New
Ruth Enid Zambrana, Ph.D.
this community warrants particular findings are introduced that create
University of Maryland, College Park
attention. Drawing from an more dynamic views of — and
Sylvia Hurtado, Ph.D.
interdisciplinary corpus of work, the new thinking about — Mexican University of California, Los Angeles
authors move beyond the rhetoric of American educational trajectories. We
NATIONAL Eugene E. García, Ph.D. Loui Olivas, Ed.D. José A. Vicente, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus, School of Transborder President, American Association of Hispanics President, Wolfson Campus,
Studies and Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, in Higher Education, Professor Emeritus, Miami Dade College
EDITORIAL BOARD
Arizona State University Entrepreneurial Studies, W.P. Carey School
Joel Gómez, Ed.D. of Business, Arizona State University EDITORS
Estela Mara Bensimon, Ed.D. Associate Professor of Educational Leadership, Noé Ortega
Professor and Co-Director, Center for Urban Graduate School of Education and Human Assistant Director and Senior Research Associate,
Education, University of Southern California Development, Director, Institute for Education National Center for Institutional Diversity, Editor: Laura I. Rendón, Ph.D.
Studies, The George Washington University University of Michigan Professor and Co-Director, Center for
Yvette Donado Research and Policy in Education,
Senior Vice President and Chief Administrative Kris D. Gutiérrez, Ph.D. Clara E. Rodríguez, Ph.D. The University of Texas at San Antonio
Officer, Educational Testing Service Distinguished Professor, School of Education, Professor, Department of Sociology &
University of Colorado at Boulder Anthropology, Fordham University Associate Editor: Vijay Kanagala, Ph.D.
Richard P. Durán, Ph.D. Assistant Professor and Program Coordinator,
Professor, Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, Sylvia Hurtado, Ph.D. Victor B. Sáenz, Ph.D. Department of Leadership and Developmental
University of California, Santa Barbara Professor, Graduate School of Education Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, The University of Vermont
and Information Studies, Administration, Executive Director, Project
Luis Ricardo Fraga, Ph.D. University of California, Los Angeles MALES and Texas Education Consortium Managing Editor: Demeturie Toso-Lafaele Gogue,
Arthur Foundation Endowed Professor of for Male Students of Color, Graduate Research Assistant, Higher Education
Transformative Latino Studies, Professor of Pedro A. Noguera, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin and Student Affairs Administration,
Political Science, University of Notre Dame Distinguished Professor and Director, Center for The University of Vermont
the Study of School Transformation, Graduate Gerardo E. de los Santos, Ph.D.
School of Education and Information Studies, President and CEO, League for Innovation
University of California, Los Angeles in the Community College
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DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS
Introduction & Patten, 2012; U.S. Department of educational challenges in the
Education, 2010). United States.
A first-generation, college-bound
In the edited book The Magic
Mexican American female was Locks & Keys:
Key: The Educational Journey of
interviewed and was asked about
Mexican Americans from K–12 to
The Educational Journey
her inspiration to persist in school
College and Beyond (Zambrana
and meet challenges. She told the
& Hurtado, 2015a), we highlight
following story:
how Mexican American families Mexican American
“ and institutional agents in schools educational progress
My father took me to the fields
and colleges motivate students to is difficult to assess
where he worked and told me
obtain an education as the pathway because research and interpretations
that I would not have to work
beyond their current economic of their lived experiences are
in the fields if I stayed in school
circumstances. From this book we often presented as ahistorical and
and studied hard. He said,
offer a set of lessons learned, which neglect the continuing forces of
‘You will have the Magic Key,
are expressed in the form of “locks” structural inequality.
which is your education’ … My
(barriers) and “keys” (solutions) Understanding the unique patterns
father’s story made me want to
“ that summarize chapter findings. and processes of educational
study more.
Book chapters are written through trajectories demands an examination
The story of the Magic Key reveals the collaborative efforts of senior of historical features and the ways
a culture of resilience and resistance and early career scholars who focus that empirical data are collected
and provides insights into how their attention on Mexican American and used to explain patterns of
Mexican Americans1 manage to education. This scholarship brings educational underperformance.
overcome barriers to success to light and resists suppression of Mexican Americans’ educational
(Zambrana & Hurtado, 2015b). Not vital knowledge that helps provide a progress tells a harrowing story of
foretold in this interaction are the realistic assessment of progress and the historical practices of exclusion
continuing challenges that students affirms and supports the voices of and denial of basic rights to
encounter in their journeys that Mexican American students in the education under the Spanish and
require critical strategies of resistance challenges encountered along their American rule until the mid-20th
on their part to contend with educational journey. century (MacDonald & Rivera,
obstacles associated with incremental 2015). A history of exclusion
Purpose
progress and common practices yields a legacy of segregation,
across changing sociohistorical stereotypic representations of
This brief seeks to improve the
contexts. Mexican Americans are the inferior intelligence, and resistance
understanding of structural inequality
largest (64.6%) Hispanic subgroup to learning that continue to shape
in educational pathways for Mexican
nationally, but the most starkly how Mexican American students are
Americans; challenge the deficit
underrepresented (Gonzalez-Barrera viewed and treated in many public
model approach as an explanatory
& Lopez, 2013). They are a much school systems.
research paradigm; and call for
neglected population group in terms
While investigators offer a variety of
ways to institutionalize effective
of research and policy, with lower
different paradigms and theoretical
educational policies and practices.
rates of retention in P–12 and in
explanations that discuss why
Most importantly, we encourage
college than other populations. These
enrollment and retention in higher
more research using an intersectional,
realities pose critical challenges
education remain low for Mexican
historical and life-course lens on
for educational administrators and
American men and women, the
Mexican Americans, who not only
personnel and, consequently, for the
historical and social contexts reveal
compose the largest Latino ethnic
progress of their communities (Motel
the larger structural forces associated
group, but also face the most
1 Mexican American/Chicano/Chicana is used throughout this brief interchangeably. Chicano is a term that many speculate has multiple origins, but many agree the term was adopted by Mexican American activists that
emerged with a political movement (el movimiento, in the 1960s–1970s) for social justice and self-determination. It is also important to note that identity is fluid and varies by geographic region. In the five states that
were originally northern Mexico (California, Colorado, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona), Mexican-origin people have extensive generational roots and perceive their identity as Hispanos, Americans of Mexican heritage
or descent, Mexicanos, Americans, Tejanos, etc. The term Hispanic is used typically when referencing U.S. government data, since that is the category used in U.S. Census and National Center for Education Statistics data
collection and reports.
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PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice
with these realities. All researchers perspective is warranted to formulate Mexican American economic, social
conduct their studies within contexts a broader theorizing discourse of and political outcomes. Differences,
that are bound by historical time. In educational processes and outcomes however, are not necessarily
the study of the Mexican American among Mexican Americans. An deficits, and low attainment and
educational trajectory, the role of intersectional lens examines patterns performance are due to a host of
historicity and its force in shaping of educational attainment, taking into economic and social factors that
structural educational inequality account power relations that shape shape opportunity structures (e.g.,
cannot be excluded. institutions in which historically quality health services, employment,
underrepresented women and men access to quality educational
History informs and, more
have participated, as well as patterns institutions) and pathways for these
importantly, shapes group
of inequality, which include both students. Moreover, cultural deficit
experiences and patterns, as well
hegemonic and disciplinary power assumptions not only ignore wealth
as helps us assess progress or
(Covarrubias, 2011; Ramírez, 2013; and color privilege associated with
stagnation. Historically, children
Zambrana & Hurtado, 2015c). This (in)equality, but cannot account for
were forced to attend segregated
approach allows for an expanded social agency, resilience and success
schools, were prohibited from
understanding of the complex role among Mexican Americans who
speaking Spanish and were
that historical conditions play in overcome the barriers associated
subjected to inferior instruction
family development, socioeconomic with being low-income and first-
(Carter & Segura, 1979; Moreno,
status and racial formation. Structural generation to achieve success in
1999; San Miguel, 2013). Attitudes
and other institutional factors schools and colleges. What explains
of racism and classism prevailed
are equally associated with the the success of the first-generation of
and marginalized these students. As
successful completion of various college-educated Chicanas, whom
Carter and Segura (1979) observe:
educational milestones in the P–16 we call pioneras (Zambrana, De
“Educators shared the community’s
pathways and beyond to the long- Jesús & Dávila, 2015)? How can we
view of them as outsiders who
term career trajectory. explain the large numbers of low-
were never expected to participate
income and first-generation college
fully in American life” (p. 15). The
The cultural-deficit model students who are beating the
neglect of Mexican Americans over
and deficit-thinking still odds and enrolling in four-year
time by the political and educational
dominate views and institutions today?
system is the result of persistent
interpretations of educational
structural inequalities associated
research on Mexican American Using an asset-based
with disproportionate academic
students at all levels. approach is central to
underperformance.
understanding Mexican
While the history of racial/ethnic
American students’ success in spite of
An examination of structural exclusion remains relatively
obstacles associated with low-income
and historical forces using unknown and structural inequality
and first-generation status.
an intersectional lens is is rarely taught in schools, pervasive
fundamental to analyzing the social constructions of inferiority First, Mexican American parents
experiences of Mexican Americans. have marked the life experiences of socialize children to navigate the
Mexican origin peoples in the United educational process by offering
The dearth of educational personnel,
States. This often takes the form emotional support and teaching
from teachers to counselors to
of, and is known as, a culturally their children defensive strategies
higher education staff and faculty,
deterministic approach, wherein for navigating between cultures.
and the low rate of four-year
ethnic values regarding education Second, the long history of
college completion among Mexican
are assumed to be the cause of low resistance and social agency have
Americans are two striking issues
attainment and performance. The resulted in some victories for
that highlight the multiple factors
approach in research and practice Mexican American education and
associated with the accumulation
is deployed to focus on individual more than likely have served as
of educational advantage or
and ethnic group deficits without examples of ethnic empowerment
disadvantage. To advance our
regard to structural inequality or that have translated into the success
understanding of these two issues, a
institutional factors that shape of Mexican American children.
more interdisciplinary, intersectional
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DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS
Several researchers (Rendón, Nora, differential, racist treatment of about students’ lives by examining
& Kanagala, 2015; Yosso, 2005, students are significant barriers failure (see Zambrana, 2011). The
2006; Zambrana & Burciaga, 2015) to educational performance. major shortcoming of this approach
now use the concept of community is its narrow focus on the individual
Although low-income, first-
cultural wealth that includes 1) or cultural aspects of the phenomena
generation college-bound Mexican
resistant capital, when Mexican without an understanding of the
American youth still face many
Americans and other Latinos relationship of ethnic groups,
financial and social obstacles such
challenge inequality; 2) linguistic specifically Mexican Americans, to
as discrimination and racism, family
capital, where communication in the historical record and existing
transmitted strengths enable them
another language is beneficial; 3) power relations that shape racial
to overcome and succeed through
navigational capital, where Mexican hierarchy and institutional structures.
various educational pathways. While
Americans and other Latinas/os
Critical race theory (CRT) posits
deficit-based studies on Mexican
learn to navigate social institutions
racism’s intersections with other
American educational attainment
and barriers; 4) social capital, where
forms of marginality. It informs the
erroneously assert that families
resources are accessed through
study of educational inequalities
are not supportive (Valencia &
social networks; 5) familial capital,
with an asset-based lens of inquiry,
Black, 2002), research shows that
which signifies the strength of
as opposed to conventional deficit
structural inequality and limited
cultural knowledge and family
models of inquiry (Rendón, Nora, &
material resources are critical
histories; and 6) aspirational capital,
Kanagala, 2015; Solórzano & Yosso,
factors in the decreased access to
where aspirations and hope are
2000). The Community Cultural
the opportunities that influence
motivating factors despite challenges.
Wealth (Yosso, 2005) framework
Many academic support programs educational careers and shape the
informed by CRT is especially
for student access and success life course for Mexican American
useful as it centers gender, race,
(e.g., PUENTE, GEAR UP, Parent youth (Contreras, 2011; Telles &
ethnicity and socioeconomic status
Institute for Quality Education) now Ortiz, 2008).
— among other intersections of
also take an asset-based approach A growing body of knowledge marginality — with respect to
involving parents and families in depicts the myriad roles families educational attainment. Community
early educational activities, creating play in the successful academic cultural wealth highlights values
communications in Spanish and performance of Mexican American and capacities nurtured by Mexican
English, and integrating cultural girls (Burciaga, 2007; Ceja, 2004; American communities that enable
activities. Further, inclusive activities Flores Carmona, 2010; Villenas, 2006; persistence and social mobility in the
in the classroom integrate and Villenas & Moreno, 2001). Less is face of significant challenges. These
validate the backgrounds and known, however, about the pioneras resources are often overlooked in
perspectives of Mexican American — what types of family strengths widely used analyses of cultural
students as contributions to the and social capital did the families of capital and social mobility,
learning process. the first Mexican American women which tend to frame historically
cohort transmit to their daughters underrepresented minorities as
The erroneous belief that to help them successfully navigate
merely deficient with respect to
families are major the educational pipeline, from
a constructed norm (Bourdieu &
impediments to Mexican K–12 through college and beyond
Passeron, 1977).
American youth’s educational success (Gándara, 1995, 1997)?
has blinded institutional educational
Research examining structural The discourse on the role
agents to the role that family
inequality using asset-based of low-income Mexican
socioeconomic status (SES), including
approaches challenges overly American families in the
parental education and social capital
simplistic inquiry that often educational performance of their
(resources and benefits received from
examines delinquent behaviors or offspring must be informed by both
social class status networks), plays
pregnancy as a catalyst for why the economic context of family
in determining where parents live.
Mexican American girls have left resources and access to social capital.
The quality of schools in low-SES
school. Such deficit-based research
Mexican American families have the
neighborhoods, unevenly distributed
seems to assume that one learns best
highest poverty rate of any ethnic
resources, implicit bias and
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PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice
group, yet they have motivated their personnel all too often dampen The documentary Precious
children to obtain an education Mexican Americans’ educational Knowledge (McGinnis & Palos,
(the Magic Key) that has opened aspirations. 2011) interwove the stories of
a pathway of social mobility students in the Mexican American
There is much to learn about how
beyond their current economic Studies Program at Tucson High
educators and school leaders work
circumstances. However, a greater School. While 48% of Mexican
with Mexican American families
understanding of the socioeconomic American students at Tucson High
who — because of long work hours,
challenges confronted and the School dropped out, their Mexican
unwelcoming climate by institutional
simultaneous familial cultivation of American Studies Program became
school agents and unfamiliarity
community cultural wealth seeks a national model of educational
with or fear of the school system
to interrupt the more conventional success, with 100% of enrolled
— may be unable to fulfill
deficit interpretations of Mexican students graduating from high
traditional expectations for parental
American families as unable school and 85% going on to
involvement. Despite these obstacles,
to help their children pursue attend college. The documentary
families display clear investment in
higher education. their children’s educación. Because highlighted an entire year in
Based on family-focused narratives low expectations for Mexican the classroom, documenting the
of a large cohort of Mexican American students are so prevalent transformative impact on students
American women who successfully (Valencia & Black, 2002), much who become engaged, informed and
navigated the educational pathways work remains in areas of teacher active in their communities.
through college and beyond education, principal certification and Students highlighted in the
(Zambrana & Burciaga, 2015), professional development in schools. documentary and Mexican American
findings show that family factors, in Valenzuela (1999) describes how respondents indicated they all
tandem with other school factors, traditional comprehensive high had compelling aspirations and
are associated with high educational schools are organized formally approaches of resistance. Five major
performance. These data contribute and informally to divest Latina/o themes emerged: 1) some had a
to extending our theorizing lens students of “important social hunger to learn; 2) some wanted
on family socialization processes and cultural resources, leaving to prove themselves; 3) some
of Mexican American women who them progressively vulnerable to had a desire to achieve upward
successfully completed higher academic failure” (p. 3). Based mobility; 4) others did not want to
education, an area of inquiry on an ethnography of Mexican experience their parents’ challenges;
decidedly absent from conventional American and Mexican immigrant and 5) many wanted to follow in
scholarly discourses. A critical review students in a Houston high school, the footsteps of siblings or received
of past social science scholarship Valenzuela observes that “rather than special encouragement from
contributes to challenging the master building on students’ cultural and a sibling.
narrative of Mexican Americans as linguistic knowledge and heritage
The documentary clearly identified
not valuing education (Zambrana, to create biculturally and bilingually
the importance of institutional
2011). In turn, these data on competent youth, schools subtract
agents. Teachers and other school
Mexican American women and their these identifications from them to
agents often served as bridging
educational trajectory challenge their social and academic detriment”
institutional agents (De Jesús, 2005;
the ideal and mythical role of the (p. 25).
Stanton-Salazar, 2010), transmitting
poor family by contextualizing
social/cultural capital to students
Bridging institutional agents
family processes and drawing on
and supporting them in developing
can provide instrumental
intersectional theorizing constructs
a bicultural and social network
support that allows for
of history, power and racialized
orientation. This finding is instructive
the transmission of social/cultural
ethnicity.
for institutional agents or school
capital to students and its activation
personnel seeking avenues to
High schools have become in their lives, developing among
promote success and institutional
subtractive in nature rather them a social network orientation
integration for Mexican American
than pedagogical, inclusive and increased chances of attaining
students. These asset-building
and uplifting institutions. School academic success.
interactions can be described
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DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS
as educational pivotal moments Mexican American students continue selective institutions. Thus, Mexican
(Espinoza, 2011) that can promote to be the target of microaggressions American representation in specific
college and professional success. on predominantly White campuses, institutional contexts plays an
In the chapter by Zambrana, as well as on campuses that are important role in whether students
De Jesús, and Dávila (2015), the more diverse. However, little is sense that they are academically
data showed that while many done to train staff and faculty or validated in classrooms, feel
respondents confronted barriers in educate students about Mexican empowered as learners, sense they
their schools, these high-achieving American culture and backgrounds. belong on campus, or experience
Chicanas resisted assumptions that Microaggressions are defined as discrimination and bias.
they did “not care,” and focused on “subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal,
academic achievement and decision visual) directed toward people Improving Mexican
making about college as a way to of color, often automatically or American representation
“prove them wrong” and overcome unconsciously” on the part of the in college is a first step
pernicious stereotypes. Educators offending individual (Solórzano, in reducing racial isolation and
must recognize the persistent Ceja, & Yosso, 2000, p. 60). alleviating issues of unwelcoming
stereotypes that Chicanas face Stereotyping, discrimination, bias campus climates.
in their educational pursuits and and even harassment happen
Mexican American students may
incorporate efforts in their work to more frequently when Latinas/os
seek “safe spaces” in cultural centers,
dismantle such pervasive attitudes are underrepresented in college,
Latina/o Greek organizations, and
in schools. but can also occur in more
ethnic campus organizations to
diverse institutions. Perceptions
The data on pioneras confirm promote awareness, enhance healthy
of the campus climate and actual
what the documentary seeks to identity development and get
experiences of hostile interactions
emphasize: that Chicana/o and other respite from discrimination and bias
can “affect how students develop
ethnic-identity academic enrichment (Cabrera & Hurtado, 2015). Faculty
a sense of their racial/ethnic self”
programs and Mexican American and staff serve as institutional
and their sense of belonging in
school agents provide considerable agents to help students navigate the
college (Cabrera & Hurtado, 2015,
support to Mexican American institution (Stanton-Salazar, 2010)
p. 151). Ruiz Alvarado & Hurtado
students. These ethnic-focused and confront challenges associated
(2015) found that institutional
programs are linked to the success with intersectional identities.
climate is perceived and experienced
of Mexican American students and
Moreover, research findings
differently based on intersections
to broader goals of community and
indicate that academic validation
of multiple social identities such
ethnic group progress. Schools and
curbs feelings of a hostile climate
as gender, sexual orientation,
their institutional agents must respect
by diminishing discrimination
income and generational status.
the identity and heritage of the
and bias and increasing students’
The researchers measured academic
student body, increase the number
sense of belonging (Ruiz Alvarado
validation (Rendón, 1994) as
of ethnic-focused programs and
& Hurtado, 2015; Hurtado, Ruiz
valuing students’ contributions
integrate them into the curriculum
Alvarado, & Guillermo-Wann, 2015).
in class, receiving feedback from
to augment successful Mexican
This strongly suggests that faculty
instructors that helped them judge
American educational performance.
and staff development should focus
their progress, attending to students’
To bridge intergenerational
on the use of inclusive practices
level of understanding of course
differences regarding college and
to create safe spaces for personal
material, and encouraging questions
career opportunities, educators must
growth and development. It also
and participation in class. In terms
engage in outreach to parents (and
suggests the need to train staff and
of Mexican American experiences,
siblings) to educate entire families.
instructors to facilitate engagement
classroom contexts matter. Mexican
across multiple social identities to
American students are more likely
Mexican Americans from
improve classroom and campus
to experience academic validation
marginalized social
climates, minimize inadvertent
in community colleges than they
identities (e.g., low-income,
microaggressions, and diminish
are in universities, and least likely
LGBTQ students) continue to report
discrimination and bias directed at
to receive validation in the most
unwelcoming college environments.
Mexican Americans.
6
PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice
College affordability Table 1. Financial Concerns Among Mexican American Freshmen and Location of First 4-Year College Attended
is a key concern for
Chicano Chicana
Mexican Americans.
1972 1992 2012 1972 1992 2012
When data are disaggregated,
Concern About Financing College
Mexican Americans are more likely
to live in poverty (28%) and are None (I am confident that
younger than other racial and I’ll have sufficient funds) 26.1 20.6 19.5 10.5 12.3 11.3
ethnic groups, with 40% under the Some (but I probably will
age of 19 (U.S. Census Bureau, have enough funds) 47.2 56.8 62.9 59.7 53.7 62.4
2012). This means that many more Major (not sure I will have enough
Mexican Americans are within funds to complete college) 26.6 22.6 17.6 29.7 34.0 26.3
the traditional college age range,
Work Expectations During College*
but often make choices based
I expect to get a job to help
on affordability. Financial issues
pay for college expenses 36.9 39.1 51.3 41.5 46.6 63.2
play a role in not only deciding
Proximity of the College to Home
which college to attend, but also
in decisions about whether to Less than 50 miles 38.6 45.6 58.3 48.5 45.5 58.1
remain in college. Differences
More than 50 miles from home 61.4 54.4 41.7 51.6 54.5 41.8
between Mexican American men
and women’s financial concerns and Source: Data archives, Higher Education Research Institute, The Freshman Survey, CIRP.
*Percentage reporting there is a “very good chance.”
the location of the first four-year
college they have chosen to attend
reveal interesting trends over time.
Increasing students’ and learn” in undergraduate research
Hurtado’s (2015) historical trend
financial literacy and that will be helpful in advancing
analyses demonstrate that Mexican
providing tools to their careers. Most of the growth
American women, relative to men,
calculate real costs are important in new jobs will be in STEM fields,
have historically been less confident
to helping Mexican Americans and ensuring that Mexican American
about their ability to finance college
choose colleges. students have both the academic
(see Table 1). Over the decades, the
preparation and opportunities to be
It is important to advise students to
proportion of students who expect
successful in college is central to
apply in a timely fashion for student
to get a job to help pay for college
their progress in those fields.
aid, seek scholarships and evaluate
expenses has increased, with 63%
the net cost of college at a variety of At a policy level, reduction of
of women and more than half of
institutions. Some of this information funding for institutions causes
men (51%) expecting to do so in
is already on college websites and increases in tuition costs to students,
recent cohorts of Mexican American
College Results Online (sponsored creating a see-saw effect that must
first-year students entering four-
by the Education Trust). However, be balanced or offset by increasing
year institutions. It is no wonder,
to keep Mexican Americans in aid to students. College affordability
as college expenses have risen and
college, institutions of higher is an important component of
students have extended their time
education must find ways to reduce a national policy agenda that
to degree completion, that more
the number of hours students are significantly affects Mexican
Mexican American men and women
working. Ensuring adequate financial American students and families.
are opting to choose a four-year
aid and good pay for work-study
college that is close to home and
opportunities that will contribute The educational future
work. Hence, a growing number
to academic achievement and long- of Mexican American
of Hispanic-Serving Institutions
term career goals also are important. male students is in a
(reaching 25% Latina/o enrollments
For example, many interventions in state of peril.
or higher) are located nearest to
Mexican American population centers. the science, technology, engineering Data show that first-time, full-time
and math (STEM) majors provide Mexican American male students
opportunities for students to “earn outnumbered females in entrance
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DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS
to four-year institutions in the Project MALES encompasses an Just as more Mexican Americans are
early 1970s. But by the mid-1980s, ongoing research agenda focused enrolling in institutions of higher
women’s representation surpassed on understanding the experiences education, onslaughts of policies
men — a trend that has continued to of Latino males in the education have intensified to close the door to
accelerate since the 1990s (Hurtado, pipeline. The project includes the highest-resourced institutions.
2015). The gender gap has taken a mentoring program that aims Further, achievement data show that
on a new narrative and is more to cultivate an engaged support Chicano/Latino students are six times
complex. Many of the origins of network for males of color at UT- less likely than White students to be
gender disparities begin early, as Austin and throughout the Central enrolled in an Advanced Placement®
Latino males are more likely to Texas community. Also included is a (AP®) mathematics or science
encounter disciplinary problems, statewide P–16 Consortium focused course due to the tremendous
be suspended from class, drop out on the success of male students of variation in the availability of these
of school and exhibit suicidal and color. Several interventions have courses in high schools or tracking
systems that limit their enrollment.
depressive tendencies (Ponjuán & emerged to address the needs of
Accountability policies in 28 states
Sáenz, 2015). Historically, Mexican Mexican American males that involve
with tests for high school graduation
Americans have had among the families and/or peers and often take
have not minimized achievement
highest participation rates in the a community-based approach, such
gaps or raised graduation rates
labor force, but they tend to work as Fathers Active in Communities
primarily because they have not
in low-wage occupations with little and Education, Encuentros
altered “sources of inequity” (e.g.,
or no health insurance and in more Leadership and XY-Zone. Important
teacher quality, resource allocation,
hazardous occupations (Maldonado policies recommended by
school quality) (Contreras, 2015, p.
& Farmer, 2006). Ponjuán & Sáenz researchers include improving access
236). In contrast, federal and state
(2015) confirm that, compared to a college-ready curriculum, having
intervention programs continue to
to other Latino males, Mexican greater transparency regarding
play a critical role in promoting
American males are least likely to financing college, creating tools for
college readiness and in providing
have earned a bachelor’s degree, financial aid literacy and increasing
access to academic resources
have the highest percentage earning Mexican American male role models
for Mexican American students.
less than $34,999 a year (22.1%), in schools by recruiting Mexican
Although effective programs show
are least likely to hold management American male teachers through
successful outcomes, reductions
positions and are more likely to be loan forgiveness programs.
in public funding for these
in blue-collar jobs. These scholars
interventions (e.g., TRIO, GEAR
contend that the larger crisis is Educational policies in the
UP, Talent Search, Upward Bound)
that few meaningful discussions United States have not
portend devastating consequences
are taking place to resolve these promoted equity and
for Mexican American students.
issues. Young Mexican American access to resources to sufficiently
males constitute the fastest-growing move the needle on the educational
Addressing unequal
employment pool, yet their talent progress of Mexican Americans.
resources in schools and
is underutilized.
Contreras (2015) identifies key eliminating high-stakes
anti-Mexican and anti-immigrant testing when the onus is placed on the
Applying research to policy
policies affecting student progress student instead of the institution for
and program development
in education from 1994–2013. low achievement constitute the most
is necessary to improve
These include state policies that important public policy agenda for
Mexican American male educational
bar undocumented students from Mexican American students.
success and opportunity. Research
attending public institutions or
Because change in schools has not
helps highlight the specific needs of
opportunities to receive aid,
happened fast enough to adequately
Mexican American males at different
immigration policies, linguistic
serve Mexican American students,
life stages, focusing on the Pre-K–
policy restrictions, the banning of
intervention programs must continue
college continuum as sites
ethnic studies in schools (Arizona) to garner federal and state support
for intervention.
and anti-affirmative action policies. or risk the economic and societal
8
PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice
costs of large numbers of Mexican scholarships for less-affluent students Conclusion
American youth who fail to graduate who come from families whose
from high school and college. parents have not graduated from The educational agenda for Mexican
Other recommendations include high school, and strengthening Americans in the United States has
instituting cost controls for public Hispanic-Serving Institutions to remained relatively unchanged
four-year colleges and expanding prepare Mexican Americans for for decades, as evidenced by the
financial aid options to open selective graduate programs that ongoing White House Initiative
doors for more Mexican American will build the Mexican American on Educational Excellence for
students to address the college professional work force. According Hispanics (WHIEEH) (1990–present).
affordability issue that relegates to the American Association of The agenda calls for more access
students to institutions with the Colleges for Teacher Education to educational institutions and
lowest resources. Contreras (2015) (AACTE) (2013), across the nation increased educational opportunities
suggests restoring affirmative action more than 80% of the bachelor’s at all educational levels. Yet one
policies for achieving greater equity degrees in education awarded wonders why so little has changed
and opportunity for underserved during the 2009–2010 school in the educational progress of Mexican
and underrepresented student year went to non-Latino White Americans. New transformative
populations. A policy agenda for students. Only 4.2% were awarded research forces us to address the
Mexican American students is to Latinos, and Mexican Americans way critical race/ethnic findings by
urgently needed because the nation’s constituted only 2% of all faculty and/or about Mexican Americans
ability to sustain itself rests on the in colleges and universities. Most are often neglected by policymakers
shoulders of the growing numbers of importantly, institutional agents and researchers who reject theories
young Mexican American students. play a critical role in academic and explanations that underscore
The next stages of this work should validation that can counter structural flaws in the social system.
focus on the contours of such an experiences of discrimination and To put it more bluntly, Mexican
agenda that will open locked doors neglect. Thus, important steps to American scholarship has been
and demonstrate real progress in move forward include training ghettoized, and its segregation
closing inequities in education and and developing more Mexican has stunted the growth of the field.
the workplace. American teachers throughout the Thus, through this brief, we were
pipeline, including at the master’s committed to including the voices
Past and current proposed solutions
and doctoral levels; providing a of scholars whose lived experiences
include universal early childhood
more robust and informed teacher and observations resonate with those
programs, after-school educational
education curriculum on issues that whom they study and who deeply
enrichment programs and high
low-income and migrant children care about issues of educational
school counselors who are
confront; and engaging in a self- inequity. Meanwhile, the debate
knowledgeable about, and interested
reflexivity process of discovery of rages on as to whether the failure of
in, helping students attend college.
implicit bias to address stereotypes Mexican Americans in schools is due
At the high school and college
and history of inequity for all to poor role models in the home or
levels, many bridge programs have
teachers. Moreover, promoting and racist stereotypes and attitudes in the
been defunded, which creates
training high-performing Mexican school or campus climate.
a large gap for those who are
American teachers and race/ethnic
economically and educationally In effect, whatever the explanation,
competent teachers into leadership
disadvantaged. Such programs Mexican American children and
positions can initiate new ways of
include, for example, full-time adults continue to be denied access
addressing the achievement gap
summer programs that focus on to important educational pathways
for low-income Mexican American
educational and social skills to that lead to social mobility. The
help prepare students for entrance children. Transformative practice educational performance of a large
into community colleges and involves empowering students to number of Mexican-origin students
four-year colleges. learn and being aware of one’s own in K–12, college and beyond will
role as teacher, counselor or scholar not improve without better policies
Other common-sense proposed
in the reproduction of inequality. and a greater investment of human
solutions include increases in
and financial resources, delivered
9
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS
by individuals who understand and Contreras, F. (2015). The role of education Hurtado, S. (2015). Trend analyses from
can incorporate ethnically responsive policy in Mexican American college 1971 to 2012 on Mexican American/
and asset-based practices for student transition and completion. In R. E. Chicano freshmen: Are we making
Zambrana & S. Hurtado (Eds.), The progress? In R. E. Zambrana & S.
success. Obtaining and employing
magic key: The educational journey Hurtado (Eds.), The magic key: The edu-
research and data can assist in this
of Mexican Americans from K–12 to cational journey of Mexican Americans
process by improving assessment
college and beyond (pp. 215–238). from K–12 to college and beyond (pp.
of progress and identifying areas
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 53–75). Austin, TX: University of Texas.
that pose continuing challenges to
Covarrubias, A. (2011). Quantitative in- Hurtado, S., Ruiz Alvarado, A., & Guiller-
the attainment of the Magic Key by
tersectionality: A critical race analysis mo-Wann, C. (2015). Creating inclusive
Mexican Americans.
of the Chicana/o educational pipeline. environments: The mediating effect
Journal of Latinos and Education, of faculty and staff validation on the
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