ERIC ED531143: Science and Mathematics Education. Education Policy White Paper

2009·0.19 MB·English

by  ERIC

Not since the launch of the Soviet Sputnik satellite
Science and Mathematics Education
spurred the federal government to begin investing in sci-
Education Policy White Paper
ence and mathematics education through the National
Defense Education Act have these two areas of the Editors:
school curriculum been so high on state and federal pol- Jeremy Kilpatrick, College of Education,
icy agendas. Policy makers, business leaders, educators, University of Georgia
and the media again worry that future United States ex-
Helen Quinn, Stanford University
pertise in the areas of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics is in jeopardy.1 Improving public edu- National Academy of Education Working Group
on Science and Mathematics Education:
cation, particularly in science and mathematics, contin-
ues to be viewed as an important national economic and Jeremy Kilpatrick (Co-Chair),
social issue. These concerns have led to the formulation College of Education, University of Georgia
of many local, state, and national education policies that Helen Quinn (Co-Chair), Stanford University
include elements such as targeted scholarships, increased
Hyman Bass, School of Education,
course-taking requirements for graduation, end-of-course
University of Michigan
exams in high school, investments in labs and equip-
ment, and in some cases, higher pay to attract teachers to Paul Cobb, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
these fields. Philip Daro, Strategic Education Research Partnership
Louis Gomez, School of Education & Social Policy,
These efforts are worthy. But, they are not enough. They Northwestern University
are scattered and incoherent—even within states and
Joseph Krajcik, School of Education,
school districts—and neglecting this lack of coherence
University of Michigan
will limit what can be accomplished. Cross-state initia-
tives, with federal assistance, are needed to increase co- James Pellegrino, Department of Psychology,
University of Illinois at Chicago
herence and build the capacity of schools and districts
across the country to provide high quality science and Judith Ramaley, Winona State University
mathematics instruction.
Richard Shavelson, School of Education,
Stanford University
One goal of such initiatives should be to ensure that the
Robert Tinker, The Concord Consortium
United States continues to have sufficient numbers of
highly skilled scientists, mathematicians, engineers, Hung Hsi Wu, Department of Mathematics,
University of California, Berkeley
health professionals, technicians, and science and
mathematics teachers. For that to happen, schools must
develop and sustain the interest of students in these dis-
ciplines, and business, higher education, and government and to function in the workplace. Such skills include be-
must create opportunities for them to pursue successful ing able to argue from evidence, solve complex prob-
scientific and technical careers. A second and equally lems, work in teams, and interpret and communicate
important goal must be to equip all Americans with the complex information.2 Science and mathematics educa-
knowledge and skills they need to be effective citizens tion has a critical role to play here, too.
A Call for Coherent Systems of settings for a short period of time, evaluated, and then
Teaching and Learning abandoned or continued depending on the outcomes and
the availability of funds. As an alternative, we recom-
An instructional system has four major components that mend starting with curriculum, standards, and assess-
any reform effort must encompass: curriculum, assess- ments that together define a common core of science and
ments, teachers, and supports for teachers and students. mathematics knowledge. Curricula, teaching materials
To function well, the curriculum should focus on essen- (including technology tools), and teacher preparation that
tial concepts and skills that build over time. Assessments are aligned with the common core all should be sub-
should measure the full range of knowledge and skills in jected to an iterative cycle of design, testing, implemen-
the curriculum and help inform instruction as well as tation, evaluation, and redesign to achieve the quality
monitor performance. Teachers need to understand the and coherence that are needed.
content deeply, know effective methods for teaching it,
and be able to create a classroom environment conducive A Path to Coherence
to learning. Teachers should also have at their disposal
adequate space, materials, equipment, technology, and There is not sufficient evidence on details of what works
class time to implement the curriculum. All four compo- in teaching science and mathematics to justify quick
nents, along with strategies for attracting and retaining movement toward a single national curriculum in either
competent science and mathematics teachers, must work subject. There is, however, substantial agreement among
in concert for science and mathematics education to be scientists, mathematicians, educators, and scholars of
effective. learning on the important strands of mathematical and
scientific knowledge and skills that students should mas-
Our focus here is on ways to improve science and ter in order to be judged proficient.
mathematics achievement in the United States through
systemic and linked changes in all four of these compo- For science, the National Research Council study Taking
nents, along with instructional use of the powerful tech- Science to School3 concluded that a student who is profi-
nologies that now pervade science, mathematics, and en- cient in science:
gineering. The linking of these components is essential,
for it is the only way to make a complex system coher- • Knows major scientific ideas and can apply
ent. them appropriately,
• Can collect and analyze evidence from experi-
The system needs to be made coherent in several ways. It ments and observations,
must be made coherent vertically, which means that stu- • Understands that science is a way of knowing
dents’ science and mathematics learning should build about the world and can apply this to his or her
from year to year. Students should not need to learn the own thinking, and
same concepts and skills over and over as they move
• Can argue from evidence, identify ways to test
through the grades. They also should be able to count on
an idea, formulate hypotheses that can be tested,
having learned prerequisite material when introduced to
use diagrams to represent ideas and record data,
new content. This requires curricula that are well-
and participate in other scientific practices.
articulated through the various administrative levels of
the educational system—the classroom, the school, the
To this list of core science competencies, we add a fifth
district, and the state. Teacher preparation should be ex- strand that comes from engineering4:
plicitly linked to these curricula. The system also must
be coherent horizontally, which means that districts and
• A student who is proficient in science also un-
states need to coordinate their curricula so that—within
derstands the designed world and the concepts
the limits of America’ evolving federal system of educa-
of engineering and design.
tion—students moving to a new school or a new state
will have a reasonable chance of picking up where they
left off without being subjected to lessons on content Mathematicians and students of mathematics learning
they already know, or struggling through lessons for have been working to identify the core strands of their
which they are unprepared. fields since before 1923, the year the final report of the
National Committee on Mathematical Requirements was
published.5 The consensus of the National Research
With those goals in mind, we recommend a systems-
Council study, Adding It Up,6 was that a student who is
engineering approach to reform. Typically, discrete edu-
proficient in mathematics has acquired:
cation reforms in the United States are piloted in a few

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• Conceptual understanding of key mathematical agreement on what should be taught in each grade, and
ideas, operations, and relations; more time is being spent on mathematics in the school
• Fluency with mathematical procedures and the curriculum.12 But, implementation has been poor. Still,
ability to use them flexibly, accurately, effi- compared with those of high-performing nations such as
ciently, and appropriately; Japan, Korea, Portugal, Singapore, and Sweden, United
• Strategic competence (i.e., the ability to formu- States standards and curricular materials for mathematics
late, represent, and solve mathematical prob- continue to sprawl over many topics within and across
lems); the grades. The final report of the National Mathematics
• Adaptive reasoning (i.e., the capacity to think Advisory Panel concluded that “the mathematics curricu-
lum in grades Pre-K–8 should be streamlined and should
logically and reflectively and to explain and jus-
tify one’s thinking); and emphasize a well-defined set of the most critical topics
in the early grades.”13 And in particular, a national initia-
• A productive disposition that sees mathematics
tive should be undertaken to improve the teaching and
as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, and that
learning of mathematics for all children ages 3 to 6
recognizes that diligence and effort will lead to
years.14
results.
Curricula and course sequences for high school science
The five strands in science and mathematics are not iden-
and mathematics present separate but related problems.
tical, but they are all based in research on learning and
At the high school level, the needs of students who in-
play a similar role in broadening the definition of what is
tend to pursue careers in science and mathematics are
to be learned (we will refer to them jointly here as “the
different from the needs of those who do not. Yet, typi-
strands”). According to the groups that articulated these
cal high school course sequences are designed as if all
consensus documents on the goals of science and
students will continue their studies in science and
mathematics instruction, all of the strands should be in-
mathematics into college. Challenging and rigorous
terwoven in an instructional system throughout curricula
used for teaching and learning.7 pathways through high school designed to serve every-
one are needed, but as yet those pathways have had in-
sufficient study for us to recommend the precise form
Although widely agreed upon, these visions of coherent
they should take. Thus, we make different curriculum
science and mathematics instruction are not now re-
development recommendations for pre-kindergarten to
flected in educational practice—especially in science.
8th grade than we do for high school.
State-developed standards in science vary widely in con-
tent and quality. Textbook publishers, understandably,
Reforms of the scale needed will likely take decades to
want to create a textbook series for a national market, so
come to full fruition and will require both patience and
they often try to cover everything called for in a given
unrelenting effort and focus.15 But the fundamental tasks
grade by any state. The textbooks that result rarely help
that must be taken on are clear. They include rethinking
students and teachers understand what distinguishes sci-
the curriculum and standards, and providing a small set
ence as a discipline. Nor do they offer a strong and care-
of coherent teaching options that meet the needs of dif-
fully designed progression of core ideas and concepts.
ferent state constituencies. The nation must begin now to
The National Research Council report Taking Science to
formulate a path and take initial steps toward a coherent
School says that the pre-high school science curriculum
system of educational opportunities in science and
“rarely builds cumulatively and in developmentally in-
formed ways.”8 Curricula and texts present materials mathematics for all students.
cafeteria-style, leaving it up to teachers to choose which
concepts to emphasize and which ones to pass over. The

experience for students is a series of disconnected les- RECOMMENDATION 1: The federal government
sons or activities that “cover(s) a limited slice of con- should strengthen the pre-kindergarten through 8th
tent.”9 grade science and mathematics curriculum by sup-
porting the National Science Foundation to fund the
The situation in mathematics is somewhat better. The development of several curricula that focus on core
National Research Council report Adding It Up noted concepts and skills, thereby preparing all students to
that “current state standards and curriculum frameworks succeed in high school. The materials should include
vary considerably in their specificity, difficulty, and related curriculum support materials, professional
character.”10 Promising national mathematics frame- development tools, and assessments.
works have since been created.11 There is generally

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The nation is now in a position to build on emerging laborative study as well as for individual learning of spe-
agreements about what should be taught and learned to cific skills and concepts. Resources to help teachers use
support the development and testing of several internally the materials and embedded assessments to measure stu-
coherent curriculum options in both science and mathe- dent progress and inform teaching are also critical com-
matics. By curriculum, we do not mean just a series of ponents.
topics that students will learn. Rather, we use the term to
mean a developmentally sequenced set of learning activi- Research on the effectiveness of the instructional ap-
ties, together with formative assessments and associated proaches devised by the projects should begin as soon as
teacher training strategies. If the goal is for algebra to be they are implemented in classrooms. The findings of this
introduced in the 8th grade, for example, then the se- research should be used to improve the approaches. The
quence of learning activities starting in the earliest research could lead, for example, to revisions in the pace
grades must be developed with that in mind. Similarly, if and sequence of the curricular units, which will require
a goal is for students to understand the inquiry process of related revisions of state standards to match the realigned
science and the principles that have been established benchmarks. We elaborate on the nature of the research
through that process, then the curriculum should be so needed in Recommendation 6, which calls for the incor-
designed, with explicit attention to both scientific rea- poration of engineering design principles into education
soning and core concepts. In addition to a curriculum se- research.
quence and instructional materials that build from year to
year, teachers need to have available to them appropriate
technology, laboratories, equipment, and materials.
RECOMMENDATION 2: High school course se-

quences and curricula in science and mathematics
We recommend that multiple development projects be
should be rethought and redesigned.
funded by the federal government to build this founda-

tion for effective teaching and learning of science and
mathematics. The government should fund proposals that
The organization of science and mathematics in Ameri-
seem likely to produce several different approaches, each
can high schools has not changed greatly in more than
coherent within itself. The funding agency should estab-
100 years, even as scientific knowledge, technological
lish criteria for awarding grants that provide for horizon-
advancements, the technical demands of the workplace,
tal and vertical integration across several states as a part
and competition in the global economy have greatly in-
of each project. The development efforts should include
creased what high school graduates need to know and be
teams of experts in the subject matter, content-specific
able to do. Students are not served particularly well by
practices of teaching, assessment, cognitive develop-
these course sequences—whether they plan to seek quan-
ment, project evaluation, and the creation of educational
titative or scientific careers or not. High schools must at-
technology, textbooks, and curricula.
tend to the needs of both kinds of students and better
pathways for each must be designed. Although we see
Each project should build a consortium of states that much that is not ideal in the current system, the path
agree in advance to align their standards with the consor- forward—and thus, our recommendations—are less
tium’s core standards for what students should know and clear. There is, however, a clear need to improve the
be able to do at each grade level in science and mathe- scope and the sequence of high school science and
matics. The states also should be expected to align their mathematics courses and we suggest here some options
state assessments with those standards, and may agree to worth investigating.
use common year-end and formative assessments. To
gain federal support, the projects should be asked to Today’s course sequences in science and mathematics do
demonstrate that they will create curricula that define not necessarily prepare and motivate a diverse group of
proficiency in a way that includes all five strands of students to pursue careers in science and engineering.16
learning in each subject and that weaves the strands to- In particular, research shows that although female stu-
gether from the earliest grades. dents are now taking more advanced physical science
and mathematics in high school, those courses are not
The curricula should include texts, materials, equipment, drawing many of them into the pool of would-be practi-
and technologies that support investigation and experi- tioners in these areas.17 The situation for disadvantaged
mentation, problem solving, and argumentation as inte- students, particularly those from under-represented
gral components of the learning process. The materials groups, is significantly worse, with few such students en-
should, for example, include technology for simulations, rolling in advanced classes, and fewer yet planning to
data acquisition, and analysis. They should allow for col- major in these fields.

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Course content and sequences should be reconsidered vestment is needed in the development and implementa-
with a goal of aligning them with the five strands of pro- tion of a science sequence of course options that prepare
ficiency for science and mathematics and providing in- children to be scientifically literate and to become life-
tellectually coherent instructional sequences in each long learners as science and technology continue to ad-
field. vance and become more complex.19 We recommend that
the federal government fund the development and testing
Science of several model high school course sequences, courses,
and syllabi along with the associated textbooks, investi-
The most common course sequence in science is Biology gation guides, technological tools, and teacher support
followed by Chemistry and Physics. This sequence is materials. Models for such work exist,20 although they
“out of order” in scientific terms, however. In biology may need some broadening of scope. The development
class, 9th graders are introduced to the complex mole- teams should include experts in the subject areas, the
cules within cells and the structure of DNA even though teaching of science, cognitive development, assessment,
they know little about atoms and next to nothing about curriculum development, educational technology devel-
the chemistry and physics that can help them make sense opment, and textbook writing, as well as a set of schools
of these structures and their functions. Furthermore, be- or districts willing to be the developmental trial sites.
cause of the limited course requirements in most states,
standard science course sequence often means in practice The sequence should be designed to ensure not only that
that many high school students never study physics at students learn facts but that they have opportunities to
all. Although 21 states require students to take at least engage in scientific investigations and argumentation.
five semesters of science to graduate, only four currently Such participation will help students to develop concep-
require three years of laboratory science (this will in- tual understanding, alongside the skills of analyzing and
crease to eight states by 2012).18 arguing from evidence through which science develops
and establishes knowledge.21 Instructional technologies
To add to the confusion, some schools offer courses with show promise for supporting conceptual learning, and
titles such as Earth Science or Astronomy outside the se- their use should be built into these curriculum designs.
quence. These courses may contain important content
and good teaching strategies, but they further limit the Mathematics
degree of coherence in many students’ experience. A
course in Integrated Science combines all of the scien- Currently, the most common mathematics sequence is
tific disciplines and attempts to create greater coherence, Algebra I, Geometry, and then Algebra II; Precalculus
but in practice is typically taken mainly by students who follows. Advanced students begin the sequence earlier
do not intend to study science formally past high school. and may take a year, or even two, of Advanced Place-
In short, the science instruction students receive in high ment Calculus in high school. This sequence and the
school varies greatly in content and quality, and rarely courses involved do not adequately serve those students
builds to a coherent understanding of the field. who do not intend to continue studying mathematics in
college. Nearly 30 states require three or more years of
Efforts have been made to change the standard sequence mathematics to graduate, but only Texas currently re-
of biology, chemistry, and physics. But the 10th-grade quires students to take the Algebra I-Geometry-Algebra
science test that most states require emphasizes biology II sequence.22 We are especially concerned about the
and thereby reinforces the existing sequence. Alterna- proposal—apparently gaining support in many states—
tives such as teaching all areas of science every year, or that Algebra II be treated as the capstone of a required
reversing the sequence by putting a physics course first, high school mathematics sequence. The traditional Alge-
have been tried but typically without investing in the cur- bra II course was never intended for all students and thus
riculum and professional development required to realize does not make sense as a requirement for high school
the potential of such change. graduation. Furthermore, with Algebra II as the capstone
course, there is no room for deep treatment of important
There are several potentially effective ways to reorganize topics in data analysis, probability, trigonometry, ele-
the high school science curriculum. What is important is mentary functions, or discrete mathematics.
that each state—or consortium of states—chooses one,
using the best evidence available. The choice process The very concept of year-long courses, each devoted to a
should include the active engagement of a group of pro- single domain of mathematics, is an anachronism. No
fessionally trained scientists and educators, and build other developed country offers separate year-long
toward a coherent program for all students. A serious in- courses in algebra and geometry. Japanese students, for

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example, study the contents of a U.S. algebra course and finement to make sure new testing approaches meet ap-
geometry course over three years, starting in the 7th propriate technical standards. Assessment systems
grade. By the 10th grade, they are ready to study ad- should also include classroom assessments that will in-
vanced algebra.23 But in the United States, so-called in- form teachers’ instruction as well as monitor student
tegrated mathematics courses are not widely offered. progress.29
Requiring more high school students to take algebra and Currently, most of the 50 states contract separately with
geometry, when they haven’t been well-prepared for testing companies to produce assessments aligned with
success by their program in elementary and middle their standards. Test items often can be—and are—used
school, has led to the creation of courses that have the in multiple states, yet each state pays separately for item
same or similar names but vary widely in content, rigor, development. Not only is this inefficient, it also under-
and intellectual demand. There are algebra courses that mines efforts to improve science and mathematics educa-
span two years and geometry courses that do not require tion across states. Shared state standards and assessments
students to learn proofs. The National Mathematics Ad- should make the process more efficient, allowing re-
visory Panel24 recently addressed this problem by articu- sources to be used to develop and to administer forms of
lating a vision for the content of introductory algebra. testing that include open-ended responses that are cur-
The Achieve consortium is also making some progress rently viewed as too expensive to administer. The federal
on this challenge.25 government should provide incentives for states to work
together to improve assessments. Recently, Rhode Is-
Data from the Trends in International Mathematics and land, New Hampshire, and Connecticut agreed on a
Science Study (TIMSS) reveal the relative lack of focus, common science assessment,30 and 48 states (along with
rigor, coherence, and uniformity in curricula in the the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the United
United States.26 According to ACT, the testing organiza- States Virgin Islands) have agreed to develop a common
tion, many students who take and pass three years of core of standards for mathematics and reading.31 This
high school mathematics must take remedial mathemat- promising approach is now being extended to science.
ics, including arithmetic, before they are prepared to take
an entry-level college algebra course. The assessments suggested in the teacher’s edition of
textbooks are frequently used by teachers in classrooms
In mathematics, too, the federal government can encour- to monitor their students’ mastery of the material, but lit-
age and support several multi-state consortia to develop tle is done in the textbook creation process to ensure that
a common framework for a new integrated mathematics assessment tasks include the most central cognitive proc-
course sequence from grades 9 through 12. The consortia esses and relevant applications of each curricular
also should develop associated standards and assess- unit. Nor are textbooks built to help teachers identify
ments using a process like that described earlier. student misconceptions or to help teachers build on ex-
isting conceptions to make progress toward more com-
plete understanding.32 Attention to these aspects of the
texts should become part of the criteria for textbook ap-
RECOMMENDATION 3: The federal, state, and dis-
proval or selection by states and school districts.
trict officials responsible for assessment should en-

sure that assessments in science and mathematics
measure higher levels of thinking and reasoning as

well as students’ content knowledge and skills. RECOMMENDATION 4: Improve the preparation,
professional development, and work conditions (in-
cluding remuneration) of science and mathematics
Assessments should model the kinds of tasks that stu- teachers in order to attract and retain individuals
dents should be working on to become proficient. Two who are competent in teaching these challenging sub-
potential models for this type of assessment are the 2009 ject matters.
framework for the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) in science and mathematics27 and the
current Programme for International Student Assessment The curricular incoherence in the United States presents
(PISA) framework.28 Each is designed to assess a spec- a problem in how to design teacher education programs.
trum of knowledge, skills, and the ability to use them in For science and mathematics, teacher preparation should
varied contexts. United States science and mathematics be built around the particular curriculum that the teacher
assessments need to move in this direction, which will will use. Today this is nearly impossible given the many
require research, test development, field testing, and re- fundamentally different curricula used in schools where

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the graduates of any teacher education program will teacher certification policies that reward districts for hir-
teach. The development of several widely-used curricula, ing teachers who have gone through rigorous programs.
and of related assessments, would help solve this prob- Also needed are effective continuing professional devel-
lem for districts and states that adopted them. opment opportunities (including those offered only
online) available to teachers throughout their careers.
Teaching science and mathematics successfully is com-
plex work that demands both great knowledge and skill. One way to reduce the cost of professional development
We are just beginning to understand the specialized na- for elementary school teachers while still increasing the
ture of the content and pedagogical knowledge that such quality of teaching is to deploy specialists in these areas
teaching requires.33 But we know that teachers need to starting in the upper elementary grades. Multiple models
be able to anticipate and recognize students’ common have shown some promise,38 such as having one special-
naïve misconceptions and errors and have at their com- ist teacher support multiple teachers, or having a small
mand examples and counterexamples to illuminate core team of teachers for a group of classrooms at a given
topics. They need to be able to interpret students’ re- grade level divide the work so that each teacher takes
sponses and questions and use them to frame further in- specialized responsibility for a limited set of subject ar-
struction. The ability to adapt mid-lesson to students’ re- eas for all classes in the group of classrooms. These
sponses depends on teachers’ own fluent understanding models, and matched plans for teacher preparation and
of the science and mathematics concepts they are teach- certification, are worth exploring further.
ing.
There is a shortage of well-qualified science and mathe-
Few teacher preparation programs pay special attention matics teachers in middle and high schools.39 To recruit
to the detailed content knowledge and pedagogical con- and retain teachers with the required level of science and
tent knowledge34 specific to teaching science and mathematics skills, teaching must compete as a profes-
mathematics. This is especially true for programs that sion with the other scientifically-oriented professional
prepare elementary school teachers, and often extends to options that these individuals can pursue.40 States and
middle school teachers as well. Teachers need to know school districts should experiment with differential pay
the content they will teach. However, taking high-level scales for teachers of different subject matters. Teachers
college science or mathematics courses alone does not of mathematics, for example, may need to be paid more
necessarily prepare them to teach these subjects well, es- than teachers of English or social studies, and teachers of
pecially to elementary and middle school students. high school chemistry and physics may need to be paid
Teachers also need subject-specific mentoring early in yet more.41
their careers as well as continued options for improving
their content knowledge and their knowledge about the
Along with teacher pay, working conditions are a key
challenges of teaching that content.
element of the recruitment and retention equation.
Among the important working conditions are appropriate
What is needed to solve this problem is far more coordi- equipment to conduct science experiments or demon-
nation between education and disciplinary faculties in strate scientific principles, and time for collegial collabo-
universities, and more rigorous programs to ensure that rative work. In addition, there should be a recognizable
teacher candidates are well-grounded in both the subject career path that encourages teachers to join and remain
matter and the teaching strategies specific to that subject in the profession and to continue to improve their teach-
matter. Models for such programs exist (e.g., the Learn- ing competence. In mathematics, improved teacher com-
ing Assistant program at the University of Colorado and petence has been shown to have a greater effect on
the parallel courses in subject matter and pedagogy in the achievement than a costly reduction in class size.42
University of Georgia’s Middle School Science and
Mathematics Teacher Education Program35). These need
to be studied further, improved, and made more widely
RECOMMENDATION 5: In funding curriculum de-
available.36 We recommend that the federal government
velopment in science and mathematics, federal agen-
support the design, implementation, evaluation, and revi-
cies should ensure that these efforts include compre-
sion of such programs by colleges and universities. The
hensive technology-based instructional and assess-
National Science Foundation’s PhysTec37 collaboration,
ment resources.
which has been supporting such work in physics, pro-

vides an example of how such funding can stimulate col-

laboration between disciplinary and education depart-
ments. State governments can help by developing

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Twenty-five years of research on educational applica- Effective ICT-based learning and assessment materials
tions of information and communication technologies are expensive to produce but, once produced, cost little
(ICTs) in science have shown that students can learn im- to scale up to serve large numbers of students. Tradi-
portant concepts of science, technology, engineering, and tional vendors of educational materials, however, have
mathematics earlier and more deeply when they use ICT been hesitant to invest in sophisticated ICT-based mate-
models and tools to explore them.43 Carefully designed rials, whether because of the large initial development
simulations and computer models can help students visu- cost, inadequate technological expertise, or fear that the
alize and understand complex concepts about objects and market will be small. Even technology-savvy companies
processes. Computer-linked technology for gathering such as game developers have not usually viewed the
and analyzing data (e.g., probeware that gives instant educational market as promising. As a result, many of
feedback about the processes being studied during lab the learning materials currently available fail to exploit
experiments) also plays an important role in school labo- the full potential of ICT. Future reform efforts must take
ratory science. Indeed, the growing application of ICTs these realities into account.
is associated with higher scores on NAEP.44 In mathe-
matics, too, well-designed programs that use technology A coordinated development program is needed over the
effectively to anticipate student responses and teach spe- next decade to produce high quality, research-based,
cific concepts and skills are producing learning gains.45 open-access technology applications for core content in
The networking that is integral to modern computers science, technology, engineering, and mathematics at all
creates important learning opportunities that include col- grade levels. Materials must be designed to teach and as-
laboration, access to large databases, and distributed data sess particular skills or concepts and tested to be class-
collection—all of which can be incorporated into curric- room ready and teacher friendly. By making the materi-
ula that address the five science and mathematics als freely available, schools will be able to divert some
strands. ICT can also support improved student assess- textbook funding to ICT equipment without increasing
ment, providing regular assessments of students using overall costs. Such technology development must be
computer-based materials, and creating the possibility of linked to—and where possible embedded in—the efforts
more affordable performance-based assessments using recommended above to redefine science and mathemat-
simulated equipment. ics curricula, how learning is assessed, how teaching is
done, and what students can be expected to know and
The “digital gap” in education has much less to do with understand. A focused federal investment to develop and
whether ICTs are available than with how those tech- provide a demonstration library of effective open-source,
nologies are being used.46 In fact, the well-designed use technology-based curriculum resources and tools with a
of ICT tools appears to be just as valuable in under- proven value for science and mathematics learning could
resourced urban classrooms—including those with many stimulate schools and curriculum publishers to make the
English–language-learners—as elsewhere.47 With sup- investments needed to realize the potential of instruc-
port from administration and staff, ICT can significantly tional technology and technology-based tools on a large
enhance student learning in urban settings.48 The Na- scale.
tional Research Council Committee on Learning Science
in Informal Environments recently highlighted the im-
portance of attending to the learning of science by stu-
RECOMMENDATION 6: Federal and state policy
dents from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds, not-
makers should establish a research and development
ing that “much more attention needs to be paid to the
cycle to sustain and improve science and mathematics
ways in which culture shapes knowledge, orientations,
education nationally.
and perspectives.”49 For example, children from low-

income families may not have access to the sorts of out-
of-school experiences and resources that children from
Too often education reforms in the United States are in-
middle-class and upper-class families often do that serve
stituted without a solid research base. The reforms are
to familiarize them with the traditional discourse patterns
then evaluated based on their average effect and, when
and ways of learning of science. As a result, these chil-
the data show that they had little effect, are abandoned in
dren come to school with different experiences with sci-
favor of a new idea about what will work better. There is
entific thinking. Thus, simply bringing new technologies
no opportunity to improve the intervention based on the
to schools in diverse communities is not enough; teach-
detailed findings of the original evaluation.
ing in the classroom must also take into account the di-
versity of the students.

8
In contrast, a systems-engineering approach would call to refine their tools and build clarity on what is critical to
for reforms or interventions to be designed based on re- their approach. Those that prove most effective during
search. Once the research-based intervention has been that period can then be broadly implemented with confi-
developed, the reformers would then identify the meas- dence that their impact can be replicated.

ures by which the intervention will be evaluated. These
measures, or parameters, would be monitored and ad- Notes
justed so that they are as useful as possible in improving
the system’s effectiveness. The reform would then be re- 1 Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy.
designed and reevaluated in a series of steps toward (2005). Energizing and employing America for a Brighter eco-
ever-better performance as determined by the evalua- nomic future. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
tions. National Center on Education and the Economy. (2006). Tough
choices or tough times: The report of the New Commission on the
Skills of the American Workforce. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass;
This iterative cycle of research and development is
Kirsch, I., Braun, H., Yamamoto, K., & Sum, A. (2007). Amer-
needed throughout the educational system if we are to ica’s perfect storm: Three forces changing our nation’s future.
achieve the improvements we seek. All elements of the Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
science and mathematics instructional system— 2 See the large number of reports calling for reform cited by
curriculum, teaching and teacher preparation, assess- Project Kaleidoscope, including America’s Lab Report; Systems
ment, support systems external to the classroom, and for State Science Assessment; and Foundations for Success: Pro-
technology—should be subjected to this applied research ject Kaleidoscope. (2006). Transforming America’s scientific and
and development cycle.50 The federal government can technological infrastructure: Recommendations for urgent action
(Report on Reports 2). Washington, DC: Author. Available at:
and should play a leading role in shifting resources to-
http://www.pkal.org/documents/ReportonReportsII.cfm; Singer,
ward supporting design cycles that allow improvements S.R., Hilton, M.L., & Schweingruber, H.A. (Eds.). (2006). Amer-
and research insights to accumulate.51 If such a system ica’s lab report: Investigations in high school science. Committee
were implemented, our schools and policy makers would on High School Science Laboratories: Role and Vision, Board on
be able to stop lurching from one purported “magic bul- Science Education, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral
and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council.
let” to another, wasting leadership capital and the good-
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; Wilson, M.R.,
will of teachers and parents.
& Bertenthal, M.W. (Eds.). (2006). Systems for state science as-
sessment. Committee on Test Design for K–12 Science Achieve-
One vehicle for carrying out such research would be ment, Board on Testing and Assessment, Center for Education,
multi-state or multi-district consortia.52 We recommend Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Na-
tional Research Council. Washington, DC: The National Acad-
that the federal government help facilitate the formation
emies Press; National Math Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations
and work of such groups by offering to fund key projects
for success: The final report of the National Math Advisory Panel.
as multi-state efforts. The goal is to remake the overall Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
system by developing core learning goals, appropriate 3 Duschl, R.A., Schweingruber, H.A., & Shouse, A.W. (Eds.).
curriculum materials, and aligned assessment systems (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science
without attempting to impose national requirements. This in grades K–8. Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten
cannot be a one-time process; it will need successive it- Through Eighth Grade, Board on Science Education, Center for
erations to reach the high level of expectations and per- Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Educa-
tion, National Research Council. Washington, DC: The National
formance that we envision. Each consortium will have an
Academies Press.
ongoing function in maintaining, monitoring, and revis-
4 See the following for arguments that engineering not be ne-
ing the instructional system and achievement goals they
glected: Garmire, E., & Pearson, G. (Eds.). (2006). Tech tally: Ap-
create. To be viable, they should be staffed by profes-
proaches to assessing technological literacy. Committee on As-
sionals who can do this work.53
sessing Technological Literacy, National Academy of Engineer-
ing. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; Pearson, G.,
Projects that produce gains should be sustained; those & Young, A.T. (2002). Technically speaking: Why all Americans
need to know more about technology. Washington, DC: National
that do not should be discontinued. The system of forma-
Academy Press; Massachusetts Department of Education. (2006,
tive evaluation and reengineering described above
October). Massachusetts science and technology/engineering cur-
should be used to improve interventions. But, those re-
riculum framework. Malden, MA: Author.
forms also should be subjected to periodic external
5 National Committee on Mathematical Requirements. (1923).
evaluation of their results. If there are no gains, or the
The reorganization of math in secondary education. Washington,
gains are too small for the cost and effort, the reforms DC: Mathematical Association of America.
should be discontinued. Projects that have promising 6 Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Add-
outcomes at 5 years need support for 5 to 10 more years ing it up: Helping children learn math. Math Learning Study
Committee, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and So-

9
cial Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Wash- Silver, C.E. (2001). Authentic inquiry: Introduction to the special
ington, DC: National Academy Press; Kilpatrick, J., & Swafford, section. Science Education, 86, 171–174; Hammer, D., & Schifter,
J. (Eds.). (2002). Helping children learn math. Math Learning D. (2001). Practices of inquiry in teaching and research. Cognition
Study Committee, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Instruction, 19, 441–478; Sandoval, W., & Morrison, K.
and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. (2003). High school students’ ideas about theories and theory
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. change after a biological inquiry unit. Journal of Research in Sci-
7 See Duschl et al. (2007); Kilpatrick et al. (2001). ence Teaching, 40, 369–392; Singer, J., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J., &
Chambers, J.C. (2000). Constructing extended inquiry projects:
8 See Duschl et al. (2007). P. 217. Curriculum materials for science education reform. Educational
9 Ibid. P. 217. Psychologist, 35, 165–178.
10 See Kilpatrick et al. (2001). P. 34. 22 Education Commission of the States. (2006, July). 50-state
view of high school graduation requirements in math and science
11 National Council of Teachers of Math (NCTM). (2007). Cur- (State Notes). Denver: Author. Available at: http://www.ecs.org/
riculum focal points for prekindergarten through grade 8 math: A clearinghouse/68/74/6874.pdf
quest for coherence. Reston, VA: Author; Achieve. (2008, July).
23 For details on the Japanese high school curriculum, see: Ko-
Out of many, one: Toward rigorous common core standards from
daira, K. (Ed.). (1992). Japanese Grade 9 math. Chicago: Univer-
the ground up. Washington, DC: Author. NCTM. (2009). Focus in
sity of Chicago School Math Project; Kodaira, K. (Ed.). (1996).
high school mathematics: Reasoning and sense making. Reston,
Math 1: Japanese Grade 10. Providence, RI: American Mathe-
VA: Author.
matical Society; Kodaira, K. (Ed.). (1997). Math 2: Japanese
12 See NCTM. (2009); National Math Advisory Panel. (2008). Grade 11. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society.
13 See National Math Advisory Panel. (2008). P. xiii. 24 See National Math Advisory Panel. (2008).
14 National Research Council. (2009). Math learning in early 25 See Achieve. (2008); Achieve. (2002, November). Staying on
childhood: Learning paths toward excellence and equity (prepub- course: Standards-based reform in America’s schools: Progress
lication copy). Committee on Early Childhood Math, C.T. Cross, and prospects. Washington, DC: Author. Achieve is an independ-
T.A. Woods, & H. Schweingruber (Eds.). Washington, DC: The ent non-profit education organization created in 1996 by gover-
National Academies Press. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/cata- nors and state leaders to help states raise academic standards and
log.php?record_id =12519#toc graduation requirements, improve assessments, and strengthen ac-
15 In the National Research Council (NRC) report by the Panel countability. A description of the Algebra I and II end-of-course
on Learning and Instruction (Donovan & Pellegrino, 2004), a clear exams created by a consortium of states in partnership with
argument was made about the types of R&D needed and different Achieve is available at: http://www.achieve.org/ADPAssessment
time frames for conducting such work, as well as the range of ar- Consortium
eas related to student and teacher learning that were part of the 26 Schmidt, W.H. (2008). What’s missing from math standards?
system of issues to be studied. The report covered math, science, American Educator, 32(1). Available at: http://www.aft.org/pubs-
and reading and made recommendations for near-term and long- reports/american_educator/issues/spring2008/schmidt.htm;
term priorities of work: Donovan, M.S., & Pellegrino, J.W. (Eds.). Schmidt, W.H., & Houang, R.T. (2007). Lack of focus in the math
(2004). Learning and instruction: A SERP research agenda. Panel curriculum: Symptom or cause? In T. Loveless (Ed.), Lessons
on Learning and Instruction, Strategic Education Research Part- learned: What international assessments tell us about math
nership, National Research Council. Washington, DC: The Na- achievement (pp. 65–84). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution
tional Academies Press. Press; Schmidt, W.H., Wang, H.C., & McKnight, C.C. (2005).
16 Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2003, July). Learning for Curriculum coherence: An examination of U.S. math and science
the 21st century. Tucson, AZ: Author. Available at: http://www. content standards from an international perspective. Journal of
21stcenturyskills.org/images/stories/otherdocs/p21up_Report.pdf Curriculum Studies, 37, 525–559. For evidence from other
sources, see ACT. (2007). Rigor at risk: Reaffirming quality in the
17 Hyde, J.S., Lindberg, S.M., Linn, M.C., Ellis, A.B., & Wil-
high school core curriculum. Iowa City, IA: Author.
liams, C.C. (2008, July 25). Gender similarities characterize math
performance. Science, 321(5888), 494–495; Turner, S.E., & Bo- 27 U.S. Department of Education, National Assessment Govern-
wen, W.G. (1999). Choice of major: The changing (unchanging) ing Board. (2008). Science framework for the 2009 National As-
gender gap. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 52, 289–313. sessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Gov-
ernment Printing Office. Available at: http://www.nagb.org/publi-
18 See Education Commission of the States. (2006).
cations/frameworks/science-09.pdf; U.S. Department of Educa-
19 Schmidt, W.H. (2008). The quest for a coherent school sci- tion, National Assessment Governing Board. (2008). Math frame-
ence curriculum: The need for an organizing principle. Review of work for the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress.
Policy Research, 20, 569–584. Available at: http://www3.inter Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available at:
science.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118855892/PDFSTART http://www.nagb.org/publications/frameworks/math-framework09
20 See Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. (2008). Another .pdf
model might be the process being used by the College Board to 28 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
rethink and redesign the content of the AP science courses in (2003). The PISA 2003 assessment framework: Math, reading,
Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Science. science and problem solving knowledge and skills. Paris: Author.
21 For examples, see Anderson, O.R., Randle, D., & Covotsos, 29 The issue of systems of assessment and the roles of formative
T. (2001). The role of ideational networks in laboratory inquiry and summative assessment are discussed in Pellegrino, J., Chu-
learning and knowledge of evolution among seventh grade stu- dowsky, N., & Glaser, R. (Eds.). (2001). Knowing what students
dents. Science Education, 85, 410–425; Chinn, C., & Hmelo- know: The science and design of educational assessment. Com-

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