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National Science Board SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INDICATORS NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION National Science Board RAY M. BOWEN W. CARL LINEBERGER Chairman, President Emeritus, Texas A&M University Fellow of JILA, E.U. Condon Distinguished Professor of and Visiting Distinguished Professor, Rice University Chemistry, University of Colorado ESIN GULARI G. P. (BUD) PETERSON Vice Chairman, Dean of Engineering and Science, Clemson President, Georgia Institute of Technology University DOUGLAS D. RANDALL MARK R. ABBOTT Professor and Thomas Jefferson Fellow and Director, Dean and Professor, College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Interdisciplinary Plant Group, University of Missouri Sciences, Oregon State University ARTHUR K. REILLY DAN E. ARVIZU Retired Senior Director, Strategic Technology Policy, Cisco Director and Chief Executive, National Renewable Energy Systems, Inc. Laboratory ANNEILA I. SARGENT BONNIE BASSLER* Benjamin M. Rosen Professor of Astronomy and Vice President Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator and Squibb for Student Affairs, California Institute of Technology Professor of Molecular Biology, Princeton University DIANE L. SOUVAINE CAMILLA P. BENBOW Professor of Computer Science, Tufts University Patricia and Rodes Hart Dean of Education and Human Development, Peabody College of Education and Human ARNOLD F. STANCELL Development, Vanderbilt University Emeritus Professor and Turner Leadership Chair, Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Chemical and Biomolecular JOHN T. BRUER Engineering President, The James S. McDonnell Foundation CLAUDE M. STEELE FRANCE A. CÓRDOVA Dean, School of Education, Stanford University President, Purdue University THOMAS N. TAYLOR KELVIN K. DROEGEMEIER Roy A. Roberts Distinguished Professor, Department of Ecology Vice President for Research, Regents’ Professor of Meteorology and Evolutionary Biology, Curator of Paleobotany in the and Weathernews Chair Emeritus, University of Oklahoma Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, The University of Kansas PATRICIA D. GALLOWAY Chief Executive Officer, Pegasus Global Holdings, Inc. RICHARD F. THOMPSON Keck Professor of Psychology and Biological Sciences, JOSÉ-MARIE GRIFFITHS University of Southern California Vice President for Academic Affairs and University Professor, Bryant University ROBERT J. ZIMMER President, University of Chicago LOUIS J. LANZEROTTI* Distinguished Research Professor of Physics, Center for Solar- SUBRA SURESH Terrestrial Research, Department of Physics, New Jersey Institute Member ex officio, Director, National Science Foundation of Technology MICHAEL L. VAN WOERT ALAN I. LESHNER Executive Officer, National Science Board, and Director, Chief Executive Officer, American Association for the National Science Board Office Advancement of Science, and Executive Publisher, Science *Board Consultant National Science Board Committee on Science and Engineering Indicators José-Marie Griffiths, Chair G. P. (Bud) Peterson NSB Staff Liaisons Camilla P. Benbow Arthur K. Reilly Jean M. Pomeroy John T. Bruer Richard F. Thompson Matthew B. Wilson Louis J. Lanzerotti Executive Secretaries W. Carl Lineberger Rolf Lehming Robert Bell SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INDICATORS 2012 Cover Image The cover for Science and Engineering Indicators 2012 was designed and produced by OmniStudio, Inc., Washington, DC. Recommended Citation National Science Board. 2012. Science and Engineering Indicators 2012. Arlington VA: National Science Foundation (NSB 12-01). Acknowledgments The National Science Board (NSB) extends its appreciation to The volume benefited from extensive contributions from the staff of the National Science Foundation and to the many NCSES staff. Joan S. Burrelli, Katherine Hale, and Mark C. others, too numerous to list individually, who contributed to Regets compiled and analyzed data for the volume. NCSES the preparation of this report. senior staff and survey managers assured availability of data under often stringent deadlines: Ronda K. Britt, Leslie Chris- Primary responsibility for the production of the volume was tovich, John Finamore, John E. Jankowski, Kelly H. Kang, assigned to Rolf Lehming, Director of the Science and En- Lynn Milan, Steven Proudfoot, Emilda B. Rivers, and Michael gineering Indicators Program of the National Center for Sci- Yamaner. Jacqueline Durham assisted in acquiring data from ence and Engineering Statistics (NCSES); Lynda T. Carlson, outside sources. Stephen Cohen and Jock Black provided Director, NCSES; John R. Gawalt, Deputy Director, NCSES; advice with statistical or data presentation issues. and Myron P. Gutmann, Assistant Director, Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences. The authors of In managing production of the volume, Rolf Lehming was the manuscript were: assisted by Robert Bell, Nirmala Kannankutty, and Cheryl Roesel. Along with Rolf Lehming, Robert Bell engaged with Overview. Rolf Lehming, NCSES authors in the development, review, and preparation of chapter content. Nirmala Kannankutty coordinated the schedule for Chapter 1. Xianglei Chen, Leslie Hall, Susan Rotermund, producing the volume. Cheryl Roesel managed the perfor- Vera Bersudskaya, MPR Associates; Lawrence mance of editorial, printing, and publication services. Lynda T. Burton, NCSES Carlson worked closely with the management team to ensure that the volume was successfully produced. Chapter 2. Jaquelina C. Falkenheim, NCSES Robin Pentola was responsible for overall direction and Chapter 3. Robert Bell, Nirmala Kannankutty, Emory P. management of the website. Tanya Gore assisted with the Morrison, NCSES final review of the page composition and appendix tables, and Rajinder Raut prepared files for review and provided a Chapter 4. Mark Boroush, Francisco A. Moris, Raymond technical review of the website. Web design and programming M. Wolfe, NCSES were performed by De Vo, Bridget Tuthill, Jason Shaffer, Moe Than, Makiko Fisher, Micah Horvat, and Richard Ashley of Chapter 5. Mark Boroush, Lawrence Burton, Mark K. Compuware Corporation. Deborah Collins helped check and Fiegener, NCSES review data for Chapter 8 and compiled the list of Acronyms and Abbreviations. Overall editing of the report was performed Chapter 6. Derek Hill, NCSES by David B. Fialkoff and the staff of Lockheed Martin Busi- ness Process Solutions. OmniStudio, Inc., Washington D.C., Chapter 7. Carolyn L. Funk, SRI International was responsible for design and production of the volume. Many others provided much appreciated advice and assistance Chapter 8. Paula C. Dunnigan, Taratec Corporation; Jeri and are listed under Contributors and Reviewers. Mulrow, NCSES The National Science Board Office, under the direction of Michael L. Van Woert, provided vital coordination throughout the project. The National Science Board is especially grateful to the S&E Indicators Committee, and Jean M. Pomeroy and Matthew B. Wilson for serving as Liaisons to the Committee. Robert Bell and Rolf Lehming were the Executive Secretaries. Dr. Ray M. Bowen Dr. José-Marie Griffiths Chairman, National Science Board Chairman, Committee on Science and Engineering Indicators iv (cid:141) Contributors and Reviewers The following persons contributed to the report by Kerry Gruber, National Center for Education Statistics reviewing chapters or otherwise assisting in its Martin P. Grueber, Battelle preparation. Their help is greatly appreciated. Gary Guenther, Congressional Research Service Kimberly Hamilton, The Patent Board Alice Abreu, International Council for Science Martha Harris, Internal Revenue Service Robert Allen, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Robin Henke, MPR Associates Nick Allum, University of Essex Paul Hitlin, Project for Excellence in Journalism Nicole Aspinall, Bloomberg New Energy Finance Ned Howenstine, Bureau of Economic Analysis Cheikhou Athie, Taratec Corporation Tracy Hunt-White, National Center for Education Statistics Robert D. Atkinson, Information Technology and Innovation Harold Javitz, SRI International Foundation Mark Jurkowitz, Project for Excellence in Journalism Susan L. Aud, National Center for Education Statistics Scott Keeter, Pew Research Center Samuel F. Barbett, National Center for Education Statistics Grace Kena, National Center for Education Statistics Roland Bardon, SRI International Cheryl Kerr, Bureau of Labor Statistics Denise Barnes, National Science Foundation Beethika Khan, National Science Foundation Kristina Bartsch, Bureau of Labor Statistics Eurry Kim, Internal Revenue Service Steven C. Beering, Purdue University Tomoe Kiyosada, SRI International Nathan Bell, Council of Graduate Schools Kei Koizumi, Office of Science and Technology Policy John Benskin, SRI International Natalia Kovaleva, Higher School of Economics, Russia John C. Besley, University of South Carolina Norris Krueger, Entrepreneurship Northwest Peter Billington, Higher Education Statistics Agency, Ltd., J. Steven Landefeld, Bureau of Economic Analysis England Julia Lane, National Science Foundation Richard E. Bissell, National Academy of Sciences Charles F. Larson, Innovation Research International Henry Blount, National Science Foundation Bruce V. Lewenstein, Cornell University Maria Borga, Bureau of Economic Analysis Joanna Lewis, Georgetown University Nava Brenner, Central Bureau of Statistics, Israel Wendy Li, Bureau of Economic Analysis Prudy Brown, SRI International James Lightbourne, National Science Foundation David B. Campbell, National Science Foundation Susan Carol Losh, Florida State University Patricia B. Campbell, Campbell-Kibler Associates, Inc. B. Lindsay Lowell, Georgetown University Jill Cape, Taratec Corporation Jacques Mairesse, Observatoire des Sciences et des Anthony Carnevale, Georgetown University Techniques, Paris Nancy Chan, SRI International Sunil Mani, Centre for Development Studies, India Chiao-Ling Chien, UNESCO Institute for Statistics Marsha K.McNutt, U.S. Geological Survey Susan Choy, MPR Associates Ram Mudambi, Temple University Patrick Clemins, American Association for the Advancement Tom Nardone, Bureau of Labor Statistics of Science Jin Noh, SRI International Wesley Cohen, Duke University Norine E. Noonan, University of South Florida St. Petersburg Daniel Cohen-Vogel, State University System of Florida Sue Okubo, Bureau of Economic Analysis Tammy D’Amato, The Patent Board Barbara M. Olds, National Science Foundation James J. Duderstadt, University of Michigan Dominic Olivastro, The Patent Board John H. Falk, Oregon State University James C. Palmer, Illinois State University Ghislaine Filliatreau, Observatoire des Sciences et des Jongwon Park, SRI International Techniques, Paris Valena Plisko, National Center for Education Statistics Michael Finn, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Joshua Powers, Indiana State University Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute Prem Premakumar, IHS Global Insight Patricia Flynn, Bentley University Sean F. Reardon, Stanford University John Fraser, The Florida State University E.J. Reedy, Kauffman Foundation Fred Gault, UNU-MERIT Carol Robbins, Bureau of Economic Analysis Donna K. Ginther, University of Kansas Terris Ross, National Center for Education Statistics Leonid Gokhberg, Higher School of Economics, Russia Erin Roth, National Center for Education Statistics Mary Good, University of Arkansas at Little Rock Allen Ruby, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department Daniel L. Goroff, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation of Education (cid:141)(cid:3)v vi (cid:141) Contributors and Reviewers Mikyung Ryu, American Council on Education Lori Thurgood, SRI International Henry Sauermann, Georgia Institute of Technology Christopher P. Toumey, University of South Carolina Scott Shane, Case Western Reserve University Serge Tran, University of California at Los Angeles Kazuko Shinohara, National Science Foundation, Tokyo Andrew Tyndall, Tyndall Report Office Jo Anne Vasquez, Helios Education Foundation Sean Simone, National Center for Education Statistics Thomas Weko, National Center for Education Statistics Thomas M. Smith, Vanderbilt University Vincent Welch, National Opinion Research Center Laurel Smith-Doerr, Boston University John A. White, University of Arkansas Thomas Snyder, National Center for Education Statistics Laura Williams, ICF Macro Matthew Soldner, National Center for Education Statistics Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, World Intellectual Property Dixie Sommers, Bureau of Labor Statistics Organization Thomas L. Spreen, Bureau of Labor Statistics Lisa Younger, Small Business Administration George Stamas, Bureau of Labor Statistics Michael Zastrocky, The Leadership Board for CIO’s Madeleine Sumption, Migration Policy Institute Klarka Zeman, Statistics Canada Anton Suslov, Higher School of Economics, Russia Ping Zhou, Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of Gregory Tassey, National Institute of Standards and China, Beijing Technology Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations ......................................................................................................x About Science and Engineering Indicators ..............................................................................xii SEI’s Different Parts .....................................................................................................................xii Presentation .................................................................................................................................xiii Overview ....................................................................................................................................O-1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................O-3 Major Global Science and Technology Trends ..........................................................................O-3 Global Expansion of Research and Development Expenditures ................................................O-4 Overseas R&D by Multinational Corporations ...........................................................................O-5 Global Higher Education and Workforce Trends .......................................................................O-7 Expanding Global Researcher Pool ............................................................................................O-8 Research Outputs: Journal Articles and Patents .........................................................................O-9 Changing International Research Collaborations .....................................................................O-11 New Research Capacity Reflected in World’s Citations Base .................................................O-12 Inventive Activity Shown by Patents ........................................................................................O-12 Global Output of Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Firms ............................................O-15 Employment in U.S. High-Technology Manufacturing ...........................................................O-16 Global Exports of Commercial Knowledge-Intensive Services ...............................................O-17 Changing Global High-Technology Trade Patterns .................................................................O-17 Deficit in Goods Trade, Surplus in Services and Intangibles ...................................................O-18 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................O-19 Notes .........................................................................................................................................O-20 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................O-21 Chapter 1. Elementary and Secondary Mathematics and Science Education ....................1-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................1-4 Introduction .................................................................................................................................1-7 Student Learning in Mathematics and Science ...........................................................................1-7 Student Coursetaking in High School Mathematics and Science .............................................1-16 Teachers of Mathematics and Science ......................................................................................1-21 Transition to Higher Education .................................................................................................1-30 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................1-34 Notes .........................................................................................................................................1-35 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................1-38 References .................................................................................................................................1-39 Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering ...................................................2-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................2-4 Introduction .................................................................................................................................2-7 The U.S. Higher Education System ............................................................................................2-7 Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States ...............................2-16 Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States ........................................2-24 International S&E Higher Education ........................................................................................2-32 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................2-37 Notes .........................................................................................................................................2-38 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................2-39 References .................................................................................................................................2-39 (cid:141)(cid:3)vii viii (cid:141) Contents Chapter 3. Science and Engineering Labor Force .................................................................3-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................3-5 Introduction .................................................................................................................................3-7 Scope of the S&E Workforce .....................................................................................................3-7 S&E Workers in the Economy ..................................................................................................3-17 S&E Labor Market Conditions .................................................................................................3-29 Demographics of the S&E Workforce ......................................................................................3-40 Global S&E Labor Force ..........................................................................................................3-56 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................3-62 Notes .........................................................................................................................................3-62 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................3-64 References .................................................................................................................................3-64 Chapter 4. Research and Development: National Trends and International Comparisons ...............................................................................................4-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................4-4 Introduction .................................................................................................................................4-7 Trends in National R&D Performance .......................................................................................4-7 U.S. Business R&D...................................................................................................................4-17 R&D Performed Abroad by U.S.-Owned Companies .............................................................4-25 R&D by Multinational Companies ..........................................................................................4-25 Exports and Imports of R&D-Related Services ........................................................................4-27 Federal R&D .............................................................................................................................4-28 Federal Technology Transfer and Other Innovation-Related Programs ..................................4-37 International R&D Comparisons ..............................................................................................4-40 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................4-53 Notes .........................................................................................................................................4-53 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................4-55 References .................................................................................................................................4-56 Chapter 5. Academic Research and Development .................................................................5-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................5-4 Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................................5-7 Expenditures and Funding for Academic R&D ..........................................................................5-7 Infrastructure for Academic R&D ...........................................................................................5-15 The Academic Doctoral S&E Workforce .................................................................................5-19 Outputs of S&E Research: Articles and Patents .......................................................................5-32 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................5-50 Notes .........................................................................................................................................5-51 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................5-54 References .................................................................................................................................5-54 Chapter 6. Industry, Technology, and the Global Marketplace...........................................6-1 Highlights ....................................................................................................................................6-5 Introduction .................................................................................................................................6-8 Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Industries in the World Economy ..............................6-10 Worldwide Distribution of Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Industries .......................6-17 Trade and Other Globalization Indicators .................................................................................6-29 Innovation-Related Indicators of the U.S. and Other Major Economies ..................................6-46 Investment and Innovation in Clean Energy and Technologies ...............................................6-60 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................6-69 Notes .........................................................................................................................................6-70 Glossary ....................................................................................................................................6-72 References .................................................................................................................................6-72