ERIC ED508442: Thinking Skill Frameworks for Post-16 Learners: An Evaluation. A Research Report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre

2004·0.74 MB·English

by  ERIC

LSRC reference
Thinking skill frameworks for
post-16 learners: an evaluation
A research report for the
Learning and Skills Research Centre
What is a ‘thinking skill’?
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in
k How are thinking skills identified
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LSRC reference
Thinking skill frameworks for
post-16 learners: an evaluation
A research report for the
Learning and Skills Research Centre
What is a ‘thinking skill’?
T
h
in
k How are thinking skills identified
in
g
sk and classified? What kinds
ill fra of thinking are needed in
m
e
w
o post-16 learning environments?
r
k
s
fo This report evaluates 35 attempts
r
p
o
s to classify the skills and abilities
t-1
6
le used in thinking and makes
a
r
n
er recommendations for teachers,
s
: a
n e learners and policy-makers.
v
a
lu
a
tio
n
A
re
s
e
a
rc
h
re
p
o
rt fo
r th
e
L
e
a
rn
in
g
a
n
d
S
k
ills
R
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s
e
a
rc
h
C
e
n
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fe
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LSRC reference
Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation
A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre
David Moseley
Viv Baumfield
Steve Higgins
Mei Lin
Jen Miller
Doug Newton
Sue Robson
University of Newcastle
Joe Elliott
Maggie Gregson
University of Sunderland
The Learning and Skills Research Centre
is supported by a grant from the
Learning and Skills Council and the
Department for Education and Skills.
It is managed by the Learning and
Skills Development Agency
Prepared by
School of Education
Communication and Language Sciences
University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU
and
School of Education and Lifelong Learning
St Peter’s Campus
University of Sunderland
Sunderland SR6 0DD
Feedback should be sent to:
Mike Cooper
Regional Director
Learning and Skills Development Agency
Room 2.3
Second floor North
Berkeley House
Cross Lanes
Guildford
Surrey GU1 1UN
Tel [phone]
[email protected]
Copyedited by Helen Lund
Designed by sans+baum
Printed by Cromwell Press Ltd
Trowbridge, Wiltshire
1541/03/04/500
ISBN 1 85338 916 1
© Learning and Skills Research Centre
2004
All rights reserved
LSRC reference
Contents
Acknowledgements
Executive summary
1 Section 1 Introduction
1 1.1 Aims
1 1.2 Scope
1 1.3 The research team
1 1.4 Rationale
2 1.5 Context
3 1.6 Implications of contextual issues for the evaluation
3 1.7 Method
4 1.8 How the report is organised
7 Section 2 Surveying and mapping the field
7 2.1 Why classify?
7 2.2 An inclusive approach
7 2.3 What are thinking skills?
8 2.4 What is metacognition?
9 2.5 What is self-regulation?
9 2.6 What is critical thinking?
10 2.7 Classifiying the frameworks
10 2.8 The family groups
2.8.1 Group 1: all-embracing frameworks, covering personality, thought and learning
2.8.2 Group 2: instructional design frameworks
2.8.3 Group 3: frameworks for understanding critical and productive thinking
2.8.4 Group 4: explanatory models of cognitive structure and/or cognitive development
15 Section 3 Thinking skill frameworks evaluated
15 3.1 Evaluation criteria
15 3.2 Evaluation of all-embracing frameworks
3.2.1 Jonassen and Tessmer’s taxonomy of learning outcomes
3.2.2 Marzano’s new taxonomy of educational objectives
20 3.3 Evaluation of instructional design frameworks
3.3.1 Biggs and Collis’s SOLO taxonomy
3.3.2 Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives
26 3.4 Evaluation of critical/productive thinking frameworks
3.4.1 Ennis’s taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities
3.4.2 Halpern’s reviews of critical thinking skills and dispositions
3.4.3 Paul’s model of critical thinking
37 3.5 Evaluation of cognitive structure and/or development frameworks
3.5.1 King and Kitchener’s model of reflective judgement
3.5.2 Pintrich’s general framework for self-regulated learning
43 Section 4 Making sense of thinking and learning
43 4.1 Introductory outline
43 4.2 How are thinking skills classified?
44 4.3 Can several frameworks be fitted into a single conceptual system?
47 4.4 Which frameworks have the most to offer for general use with post-16 learners?
49 Section 5 Some ideas for using the frameworks
49 5.1 Using a five-category framework to classify key skills objectives
51 5.2 Other ways of using thinking skill frameworks
52 5.3 Which frameworks are best suited to specific applications?
55 Section 6 Summary of what is known and the need for further research
55 6.1 Introductory outline
55 6.2 In which areas is there extensive or widely accepted knowledge?
57 6.3 In which areas is knowledge very limited or highly contested?
58 6.4 What questions arise for further research?
59 6.5 What are the implications of our research for policy-makers?
61 Glossary
63 References
71 Appendix 1 Theoretical frameworks for thinking about thinking
78 Appendix 2 Descriptions and evaluative summaries of 26 frameworks
78 Allen, Feezel and Kauffie’s taxonomy of concepts and critical abilities related
to the evaluation of verbal arguments
80 Altshuller’s TRIZ (teoriya resheniya izibreatatelskikh zadach)
theory of inventive problem solving
83 Ausubel and Robinson’s six hierarchically ordered categories
85 Baron’s model of the good thinker
87 Belenky’s ‘women’s ways of knowing’ developmental model
89 Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives
92 Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities
94 Feuerstein’s theory of mediated learning through Instrumental Enrichment
97 Gagné’s eight types of learning and five types of learned capability
99 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
102 Gouge and Yates’ ARTS Project taxonomies of arts reasoning and thinking skills
105 Gubbins’ matrix of thinking skills
107 Guilford’s structure of intellect model
110 Hannah and Michaelis’s comprehensive framework for instructional objectives
112 Hauenstein’s conceptual framework for educational objectives
115 Jewell’s reasoning taxonomy for gifted children
117 Koplowitz’s theory of adult cognitive development
119 Lipman’s three modes of thinking and four main varieties of cognitive skill
122 Perry’s developmental scheme
124 Presseisen’s models of essential, complex and metacognitive thinking skills
126 Quellmalz’s framework of thinking skills
128 Romiszowski’s analysis of knowledge and skills
131 Stahl and Murphy’s domain of cognition taxonomic system
134 Sternberg’s model of abilities as developing expertise
136 Vermunt and Verloop’s categorisation of learning activities
138 Williams’ model for developing thinking and feeling processes
141 Appendix 3 Reason!Able evaluations
141 Pintrich’s general framework for self-regulated learning
143 Halpern’s reviews of critical thinking skills and dispositions
145 Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy
147 Appendix 4 Using an integrated framework for understanding thinking and learning to categorise
Costa and Kallick’s (2000a) ‘habits of mind’
LSRC reference
Figures and tables
Figures
18 1 The hierarchical control structure of Marzano’s theory-based taxonomy
23 2 Structural changes from Bloom to the Anderson and Krathwohl revision
24 3 Taxonomy table with illustrative examples
34 4 Paul’s model of critical thinking
45 5 An integrated framework for understanding thinking and learning
50 6 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking across key skills
50 7 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking within each key skill level
51 8 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking within each key skill
80 9 Classifying a specific problem as an instance of a TRIZ generic problem,
using TRIZ tools to identify a generic solution, then translating it into
a specific solution
107 10 The structure of intellect model
110 11 The complete framework for instructional objectives
119 12 Major modes of thinking (with criteria)
139 13 Williams’ model for encouraging thinking and feeling
Tables
18 1 Marzano’s new taxonomy
21 2 The SOLO taxonomy levels, with descriptors and criteria
29 3 An example of one of the critical thinking skills specified by Halpern
30 4 Halpern’s categorisation of critical thinking skills
37 5 King and Kitchener’s seven-stage model
39 6 Phases and areas for self-regulated learning
45 7 Comparison of three sets of categories
49 8 Five types of thinking skill and their definitions
79 9 Evaluative summary of Allen, Feezel and Kauffie’s taxonomy of concepts
and critical abilities related to the evaluation of verbal arguments
82 10 Evaluative summary of Altshuller’s TRIZ (teoriya resheniya
izibreatatelskikh zadach) theory of inventive problem solving
84 11 Evaluative summary of Ausubel and Robinson’s six hierarchically
ordered categories
86 12 Evaluative summary of Baron’s model of the good thinker: a typology of
attitudes and dispositions related to acquiring and using thinking skills
88 13 Evaluative summary of Belenky’s ‘women’s ways of knowing’
developmental model
90 14 Levels of detail in Bloom’s taxonomy (cognitive domain)
91 15 Evaluative summary of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives:
cognitive domain
93 16 Evaluative summary of Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities
95 17 Map of cognitive strengths and weaknesses
(adapted from Skuy et al. 1991)
96 18 Evaluative summary of Feuerstein’s theory of mediated learning through
Instrumental Enrichment
98 19 Evaluative summary of Gagné’s eight types of learning and five types of
learned capability
101 20 Evaluative summary of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
103 21 The common framework used in the ARTS reasoning taxonomies
104 22 Evaluative summary of Gouge and Yates’ ARTS Project taxonomies of arts
reasoning and thinking skills
106 23 Evaluative summary of Gubbins’ matrix of thinking skills
108 24 Guilford’s model, with sub-category descriptors
109 25 Evaluative summary of Guilford’s structure of intellect model
111 26 Evaluative summary of Hannah and Michaelis’s comprehensive
framework for instructional objectives
113 27 Hauenstein’s abbreviated taxonomy of educational objectives
114 28 Evaluative summary of Hauenstein’s conceptual framework for
educational objectives
115 29 Jewell’s reasoning taxonomy for gifted children
116 30 Evaluative summary of Jewell’s reasoning taxonomy for gifted children
117 31 Koplowitz’s stages in adult cognitive development
118 32 Evaluative summary of Koplowitz’s theory of adult cognitive development
121 33 Evaluative summary of Lipman’s three modes of thinking and four main
varieties of cognitive skill
123 34 Evaluative summary of Perry’s developmental scheme
124 35 Presseisen’s taxonomy of essential thinking skills
125 36 Presseisen’s model of complex thinking skills
125 37 Presseisen’s model of metacognitive thinking skills
125 38 Evaluative summary of Presseisen’s model of essential, complex and
metacognitive thinking skills
126 39 Higher-order thinking strategies and processes
127 40 Evaluative summary of Quellmalz’s framework of thinking skills
128 41 Romiszowski’s knowledge categories
129 42 Romiszowski’s skill cycle in tabular form
129 43 Romiszowski’s schema of skill categories
130 44 Evaluative summary of Romiszowski’s analysis of knowledge and skills
132 45 The domain of cognition
133 46 Evaluative summary of Stahl and Murphy’s domain of cognition
taxonomic system
135 47 Evaluative summary of Sternberg’s model of abilities
as developing expertise
136 48 A categorisation of learning activities
137 49 Evaluative summary of Vermunt and Verloop’s categorisation
of learning activities
140 50 Evaluative summary of Williams’ model for developing thinking
and feeling processes
Acknowledgements
The LSDA project steering group provided us with helpful
feedback, advice and encouragement, as did its chair,
John Vorhaus, throughout the project.
Members of a regional steering group similarly provided
useful guidance. Jan Portillo of Gateshead College
helped with the organisation of the questionnaire study
reported in Section 5.
We are grateful to Robert Marzano, Paul Pintrich and
Robert Sternberg for reading and commenting on drafts
of this report.
LSRC reference
Executive summary
There was a need for this project because: We found that:
with a few exceptions, thinking skills are not we could classify frameworks of thinking skills under
explicitly built into education and training for four headings:
post-16 learners in England all-embracing frameworks covering personality,
there is no established basis for choosing thought and learning
between thinking skill frameworks for general instructional design frameworks
or specific applications frameworks for understanding critical and
little is known, although much is claimed, productive thinking
about the potential of thinking skills approaches explanatory models of cognitive structure and/or
for helping to raise the quality of education cognitive development
and training delivery for post-16 learners.
the largest of the four groups is the instructional
We decided to: design family, where the strong and continuing
influence of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives
consider all kinds of thinking and learning which are (1956) is apparent. Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001)
to some degree under conscious control revision of Bloom’s taxonomy has much to commend it
exclude unsystematic ways of classifying thinking skills (see Section 3.3.2)
include frameworks designed for different purposes many critical and productive thinking frameworks
and from different perspectives – broadly educational, include process categories which resemble Bloom’s
psychological and philosophical analysis, synthesisand evaluation; there is also
generalagreement about the need to manage thinking
apply a consistent set of evaluation criteria, focusing strategically, aided by appropriate dispositions
on underlying values, theoretical and practical aspects (habits of mind)
and communicability
Halpern’s1work on critical thinking skills and
summarise and evaluate 35 thinking skill frameworks, dispositions (see Section 3.4.2) stands out as being
nine of them in more detail than the rest coherent, broad in scope and accessible for teachers
explain our understanding and use of key terms, and learners
while recognising differences of opinion and trying to although theorists have different ideas about the
distinguish substantive from less substantive issues. structure and development of cognitive abilities, they
agree that these are multidimensional and modifiable
We recognised that:
Pintrich’s (2000) framework for self-regulated
research reviews about what makes thinking skills learning (Section 3.5.2) represents an integrated
approaches effective highlight (a) learner engagement, dynamic conception of how thinking and learning
(b) thinking about thinking, and (c) the strategic can be developed
management of thinking
in recent years, a number of all-embracing frameworks
if teachers are to engage with and use thinking skill have been constructed, most notably the work
frameworks, these must be clearly expressed and of Marzano (2001a, 2001b; see Section 3.2.2).
situationally appropriate, and should convey a degree
of both affirmation and challenge Because:
if learners are to benefit from thinking skills thinking skill frameworks can be used for many different
approaches, they need to develop a deeper purposes; and
understanding of learning and instruction and
appreciate the value of thinking skills in daily life. thinking skill frameworks are constructed on the basis
of at least 15 different classificatory principles
we recommend different frameworks for different
applications:
academic study
instructional design
developing pedagogical theory and practice
consultancy
assessment
research and evaluation.
1
Where a date is not appended to an author’s name, the reference is to his
or her work overall.