ERIC ED508428: Qualitative Methods Can Enrich Quantitative Research on Occupational Stress: An Example from One Occupational Group

2010·1.1 MB·English

by  ERIC

QUALITATIVE METHODS CAN
ENRICH QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH ON OCCUPATIONAL
STRESS: AN EXAMPLE FROM ONE
$
OCCUPATIONAL GROUP
Irvin Sam Schonfeld and Edwin Farrell
ABSTRACT
The chapter examines the ways in which qualitative and quantitative
methods support each other in research on occupational stress. Qualitative
methods include eliciting from workers unconstrained descriptions of
work experiences, careful first-hand observations of the workplace, and
participant-observers describing ‘‘from the inside’’ a particular work
experience. The chapter shows how qualitative research plays a role in
(a)stimulatingtheorydevelopment,(b)generatinghypotheses,(c)identi-
fying heretofore researcher-neglected job stressors and coping responses,
(d)explainingdifficult-to-interpretquantitativefindings,and(e)providing
$This chapter is an expansion of the paper, ‘‘Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in
Occupational Stress Research’’ Professors Schonfeld and Farrell published in Rossi, A.M.,
Quick,J.C.,&Perrewe´,P.L.(Eds.).(2009).Stress&qualityofworkinglife:Thepositiveandthe
negative.Greenwich,CT:InformationAgePublishing.
NewDevelopmentsinTheoreticalandConceptualApproachestoJobStress
ResearchinOccupationalStressandWellBeing,Volume8,137–197
Copyrightr2010byEmeraldGroupPublishingLimited
Allrightsofreproductioninanyformreserved
ISSN:1479-3555/doi:10.1108/S1479-3555(2010)0000008007
137
138 IRVINSAM SCHONFELD AND EDWINFARRELL
richdescriptionsofstressfultransactions.Extensiveexamplesfromresearch
on job stress in teachers are used. The limitations of qualitative research,
particularly in the area of verification, are also described.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ON OCCUPATIONAL
STRESS CAN ENRICH QUANTITATIVE
STRESS RESEARCH
The purpose of this chapter is to advance the idea that qualitative methods
and more highly controlled quantitative methods applied to occupational-
stress research, together, compared to either methodology alone, can
provide a clearer picture of the stress process. Plewis and Mason (2005)
wrote that quantitative and qualitative methods represent ‘‘mutually
informing’’ strands of research. Hugentobler, Israel, and Schurman (1992)
underlinedtheviewthateverymethodhasweaknesses,andthatbyapplying
manifold methods to the study of occupational stress, weaknesses in one
method canbecompensatedforbystrengths inother methods.They goon
to show how qualitative and quantitative methods converged in identifying
the sources of stress in workers in a manufacturing firm. Qualitative
research, moreover, can be useful to quantitative researchers in instrument
development(Blase,1986;Brownetal.,1986;Schonfeld&Feinman,2009).
Qualitative methods, particularly methods associated with grounded
theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), emphasize the emergence from data of
theoretically important categories as well as hypotheses bearing on the
relations among those categories. There is no dearth of literature on using
multiple methods (Cresswell, 2003; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Smith
(2006), justifying the application of multiple methodologies in educational
research, pointed out that ‘‘any methodology has inherent deficiencies and
fails to capture the chaos, complexity, and contextuality of applied fields
suchaseducation’’(p.458).Wewouldaddtheappliedfieldofoccupational-
stressresearch.Methodsmustfittheresearchquestions.Itisappropriateto
use survey methods, for instance, when one wants to quantify variables in
theoccupational-stresscontext.Tocharacterizedescriptivelytheintensityof
work-related stressors experienced by individual workers, however, quali-
tativemethodsmaybeprofitablyused(Jex,Adams,Elacqua,&Lux,1997).
There are at least three broad types of qualitative methods that have
been employed in occupational-stress research (see Tables 1 and 2). The
first, and most commonly used, method involves having members of
Qualitative andQuantitative Research 139
aVarietyofWorkers KeyFindings Leadingsourcesofjobstresswereconductingresearch,timeconstraints,relationshipswithothers,andfinancialdifficulties Thosecurrentlyundercovershowedthemostdeviance,definedasbehaviorthatifdiscoveredwouldleadtodepartmentsanctionsThoseformerlyundercovershowedadecreaseindeviancefromperiodcoveringpreviousdutiestonewdutiesLeastdevianceintheofficersonroutinepatrol ColleaguerelationshipsweresourceofstressevidentinqualitativestudybutnotinquantitativestudyInquantitativestudy,difficultieswithmanagementwerethemostcommonstressorsDifficulttocomparepsychiatricnursestoothersbecauserolesinvolvedifferenttypesofnursing
cupationalStressInvolvingExceptionofTeachers. Method Questionnairescontainingopen-endedquestionsaboutstressorsassupplementtoaquantitativestudy Usedaninterviewdesignedtounderstandthephenomenology,or‘‘livedexperience,’’ofpolicing.InterviewtiedtoAgnew’s(2001)straintheoryPoliceofficersinvitedtoserveas‘‘co-researchers’’Unusualforpurelyqualitativestudybecauseauthortestshypotheses(regardingAgnew’stheoryofstress) QualitativeinterviewstoidentifystressorsanddesignedtoletcategoriesofstressorsemergefromthedataAlsocollectedquantitativedatafromstandardizedinstruments
c
1.QualitativeStudiesofOwiththe Sample 305maleand109femaleacademicsatauniversityinWales 32malepoliceofficersfromtwosouthernU.S.localitiesIncludedofficerscurrentlyundercover,formerlyundercoverbutnowhavingroutineduties,andneverundercoverandhavingroutineduties 63medical–surgicalnursesand67critical-carenursesinaqualitativestudy22psychiatricnursesinquantitativestudyNotclearbutprobablypredominantlyfemalesampleCalifornia
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140 IRVINSAM SCHONFELD AND EDWINFARRELL
KeyFindings Stressorsincludedcolleaguesabsentingthemselves,creatingmoreworkfornurseswhowerepresentintermsofpilingontasks.AuthorsreadnursepowerlessnessintotheseconditionsStrainsincludedheadaches,stomachaches,andlackofenergyPresenceofcolleagueswasimportanttowell-being:‘‘Itisnotthecoffee,butthemeetingothers.Onehastogetenergy.Oneisworkingmuchbetter’’‘‘Burnoutwasamentalcoma.Icoulddonothing’’(p.24) Qualitativeresultsindicatethatsourcesofstressincludedlackoftime,problematicrelationships,andcertainjobcharacteristics(e.g.,redtape,committeework)Copingincludedself-care(e.g.,relaxationandrecreation)anddirectaction(e.g.,timemanagementandsheddingresponsibilities)Qualitativefindingswereconsistentwithquantitativefindings,particularlyinareaoflackoftimeandproblematicrelationships
Continuedble1.() Method Semistructuredinterviewsorganizedtoallowcategoriesofstressorstoemerge QualitativecomponentsupplementingquantitativequestionnairestudyinvolvingscalesmeasuringjobstressQualitativecomponentincludedopen-endedquestionsonsourcesofjobstressandcoping
a
T
airs
Sample 0Swedishwomennurses 68facultyand74student-aff(S-A)staffmembersamplewasrepresentativeoffacultyandS-AstaffatMidwesternU.S.stateuniversity
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Paper Billeter-K´Freden Brownet
Qualitative andQuantitative Research 141
Jobstressorscenteredonlackofcontrolanddisrespect:1.psychologistsplannedforresidentsbuthadunrealisticexpectationsanddidnotconsidertheideasandexperienceoftechnicians;2.administratorsmadedecisionsaffectingtechnicianswithouttechnicianinputOneof4supervisorswassupportive;inthatunittechnicianswerehighlycohesiveandhadthebestCornellMedicalIndexscoresViolenceamongresidentswasastressor Thequantitativestudyhadseeminglycontradictoryresults:nurseswhoworkedinthe‘‘holistic’’wardsexperiencedareductioninstressors(timepressure,contradictorytaskgoals,andergonomicstressors)asaresultofjobredesign;however,emotionalexhaustionanddepersonalizationwereelevatedQualitativefindingsindicatedthatholisticsystemintensifiednurses’emotionalworkandinteractionstress;noopportunitytowithdrawfromdifficultpatients;traditionalwardshadonlypiecemealexposuretodifficultpatients ThenursesindicatedthatcaregivinggaverisetodistressinthecaregiverTechnicallynotastudyofoccupationalstress;moreanassessmentofnurses’modelsofstressinfamilymemberswhoprovidedcaretodementedpatientsSomegapsinnurses’understandingofcaregiverstressByimplicationthesegapsaffectnurseefficacy
e
Interviewscoveredsourcesofperceivedworkstresses,sourcesofsatisfactionwithwork,andsupportfromworkandnonworksourcesParticipantobservationineachofthe4unitsunderstudy;authorsengagedinactivitiesperformedbythetechnicians 12discussiongroupsTherewasalsoaquantitativestudyQualitativedataweretoillustratethmeaningsofquantitativefindings Semistructuredinterviewdesignedtoelicitnarrativesaboutfamilycaregivers,butcaregiversthemselveswerenotinterviewed
1psychiatrictechniciansin4SouthernCaliforniaunitsthathousedmentallyretardedpatients,whomacompanionpaperbyLundgrenandBrowner(1990)indicatedwerechallengingtocarefor2techswerewomen 2nursesinwardthatwasredesignedformoreholisticallydeliveredservicesand75nursesincontrolwards;Germany;87.5%females femalesnurseswhoworkedincommunitymentalhealthteams;U.K.
2 1 3 8
7) nd,
Browneretal.(198 BussingandGlaser¨(1999) Carradice,ShanklaandBeail(2002)
142 IRVINSAM SCHONFELD AND EDWINFARRELL
KeyFindings Stressorsincludedreducedfunding,highworkload,understaffing,interpersonalconflict,androleambiguityCopingincludedproblemsolving(e.g.,timemanagement,delegating),confrontation(e.g.,lettingfeelingsout,expressinganger),positivereappraisal(e.g.,puttingeventsinperspective)Supportcamefromassociates,mates,otheradministrators,andfriendsQuantitativefindingsindicatehighlevelsofpsychologicalsymptomsrelativetoscalenorms. PositiveandnegativepressuresSomepressureviewedashelpful,causingfeelingofhavingone’sabilitiesstretched;suchpressurewasreportedtobestimulatingCopingseenascentraltoshapingstressfulexperiencesQualitativeresultshelpedindevelopmentofitemsforcopingscaleusedinstage2 A‘‘one-off’’eventwasunanticipated,especiallyviolentevent;anepiphanaleventhadbeenexperiencedpreviouslybutnowhasacquirednewmeaningOfficerswhoexperiencedone-offeventweremoremotivatedtorecoverandreturntowork;officerswhoexperiencedanepiphanaleventweremorepessimisticandmorelikelytowanttoleavejob
Continuedble1.() Method 21directorswereinterviewed.Qualitativematerialcamefromtheinterview,whichincludedopen-endedquestionsaboutstressorsandstructuredprobesaboutstressorsInterviewalsoincludedquestionsaboutcopingAllquestionnairesalsocontainedquantitativemeasures Interviewsusingopen-endedquestions‘‘Canyouthinkofatimeatworkwhenyoufeltunderstress?’’‘‘Canyoutellmewhathappenedandhowyoumanagedtocopewithit?’’ Basedonexperiencesofauthorasacounselortopoliceofficers
Ta Sample 43Californiacountydirectorsofnursing42werewomen 5supervisorsand5administratorsinU.K.salesofficecontributedtofirststageofatwo-stagestudy;stage2wasquantitativelyorganizedstudyGenderdistributionnotclear 35Englishpoliceofficers11werefemale
Paper Cohen(1989) Dewe(1989) Dick(2000)
Qualitative andQuantitative Research 143
OfficersoftenusedpalliativecopingstrategiesCopingviarumination(heremeaningdwellingoncausesofstressfulevents)wasespeciallyevidentinofficerswhoexperiencedangeranddepressionOrganizationalvaluesinfluencedtheindividual;exampleof‘‘actingtough’’infaceofdevastatingstressor Employeesexperiencedabout7stressfulwork-relatedeventsperdayDailystressorscamemorefromworkthanhomeWorkstressorsincludedinterpersonalstressors,quantitativeandqualitativeoverload,organizationalproblemssuchaslackofdatabackupSituationalwell-beingafteradailystressor(ascertainedqualitatively)wasinverselyrelatedtotheintensityofchronicstressors(measuredquantitatively)Calmingdownafterdailyworkstressorwasdirectlyrelatedtojobcontrol Stressorsincludedtalkingwithpsychiatricpatients,effectsofworkonprivatelife,anddealingwithdeathChronicstressorsincludedfeelinguseless,relationswithseniordoctors,feelinginadequate
VerysimilartoGrebner,Elfering,Semmer,Kaiser-Probst,andSchlapbach(2004).Seebelow KeenanandNewton’s(1985)SIRtoaskabout1stressfulincident(excludingexams)inthelastmonthAlsoaskedaboutmostlikedanddislikedaspectsofwork(getsatchronicstressors)Contentanalysis
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144 IRVINSAM SCHONFELD AND EDWINFARRELL
KeyFindings NumberofthemesemergedfromdataBurntoutpsychiatristsshowedmoreirritabilityExcessiveworkvolumeadverselyaffectedthemPerfectionisticbehaviorcontributedtoburnoutSupportiverelationshipswithmanagerswerehelpfulSupportivefamilyandfriendswerehelpful StressorslikeworkloadandorganizationalconstraintswereuniversalOtherstressorsliketypeofpatientwereonlyastressorinIsraelperhapsbecause‘‘Israelinurseswereconfrontedwithdeathanddyingofyoungsoldiersfarmorefrequentlythannursesintheothercountries’’(p.62) ‘‘Qualitativeoverload’’reflectedintheindeterminacyanduncertaintyconnectedtomanycriminalcasesSpilloverofjobstresswithprosecutorsshowingdifficultyleavingworkdifficultiesbehindattheendoftheworkday
Continuedble1.() Method SemistructuredinterviewUsedquantitativeinstrumenttoidentifypsychiatristswhowerehighandlowinemotionalexhaustion Open-endedqualitativequestionincludedinsurveytoelicitfromnursestheworkplaceconditioneachidentifiedasmoststressfuloranxiety-provokingResponseswerecontentanalyzed In-depthinterviewswithprosecutorsObservationsofprosecutorsExaminationofdocumentarymaterial
Ta More vince
Sample 12NewZealandpsychiatrists;6werehighinemotionalexhaustionand6werelowSexdistributionnotmentioned 1,442nursesfromU.S.,U.K.,Hungary,Italy,andIsrael.than90%females Nomorethan26CrownprosecutorsinCanadianpro(exactnumbernotclear)Genderdistributionnotclear
5)
9
Kumar,ander(2007) ndGyurak andHall(19
Paper Fischer,Hatch Glazera(2008) Gomme
Qualitative andQuantitative Research 145
IntenseloyaltytocustomersMoneyasscorecardtomeasuresuccessCopingresponsestomajorstressor,accountloss,includedmainlyemotion-focusedcoping;emphasisonexerciseandavoidance;littlehelp-seekingIdentifiedinternalizersandexternalizersamongtheresponderstomajorsaleslossInternalizerstooklosspersonally;experiencedintenseemotionsExternalizersweremorelikelytoexperiencearushofanger;internalizers,grief 7.3stressfuleventsperpersonperweek;morethan75%wereworkeventsResultsconsistentwiththeviewthat‘‘theSwissapprenticeshipsystempreparespeopleratherwellfortheirnewrolebyextensivetraining’’(p.41)OverloadandinterpersonalstressorsmostcommonlyoccurringworkstressorsChronicjobstressors(measuredquantitatively)predictedtheoccurrenceofdailystressors(ascertainedqualitatively)JobcontrolpredictedcalmingdownafteradailystressorDailyjobstressorsdidnotpredictsituationalwell-beingwhenchronicjobstressorswerecontrolled
In-depth,semistructuredinterviewsregardingmajorsaleslossandcopingwithsuchlossInterviewswere‘‘co-created’’byinterviewerandintervieweeinordertocoverthemesinstressliteratureandhaveflexibilitytofollowtopicsbroughtupbysalespeople QualitativepartiscenterpieceintegratedintoambitiousquantitativedailydiarystudythatassessesSson7daysQualitativedescriptionofstressorswaspartofpaper-and-pencilpocketdiary
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146 IRVINSAM SCHONFELD AND EDWINFARRELL
KeyFindings Stressorsincludedkeepingpacewithheavyworkload,upsetatfirstexperienceatdissection,arrogantinstructorsComparedtothosewhodidnotreportastressor,thosewhodid,hadsignificantlyhigherscoresonemotionaldisturbance MorestressorsatworkthanathomeViolentpatientswereastressorforpsychiatristsatalllevelsofseniorityJuniorpsychiatristsmoreoftenexperiencedstressorsintheirpersonallives(e.g.,illness,loss)andpatient-relatedstressors;forseniorpsychiatristsstressorsmorelikelytoincludeadministrativeproblemsAgeandseniority-gradedpatterningofstressors.Balancingworkandfamilylifemoreofastressorearlyinpsychiatrists’careers Manydistressingexperiencesincludingself-harmamonginmatesOtherstressorsincludedhighlevelsofroleswitchingandabsenteeismamongcoworkersSupportivenessamongstaffbutsupportwaslimitedbecauseofabsenteeismConcernedthatinfo.obtainedinfocusgroupscouldhaveinvolvedmimicry;one-to-oneinterviewsservedasavaliditycheck.Info.frombothsourcesdovetailed
Continuedble1.() Method UsingKeenanandNewton’s(1985)SIRaskedabout1stressfulincident(excludingexams)inthelastmonthAlsointegratedaquantitativecomponentintheformofscalemeasuringemotionaldisturbancewiththequalitativedata UsingKeenanandNewton’s(1985)SIR,eachpsychiatristdescribedastressfuleventthatoccurredinthelastmonthSupplementedaquantitativestudy 35infocusgroups24interviewedAttemptedtocapturethe‘‘everydayreality’’oftheparticipants
Ta Sample 172Englishfirst-yearmedicalstudents,51%males 106U.K.psychiatristsofthreesenioritygrades;abouthalfweremale 59U.K.prisonworkersJobsincludedmanagers,health-careassistants,nurses,prisonofficersVastmajoritywerewomen(Holmes,April23,2009,personalcommunication)
nd es
Paper Guthrieetal.(1995) Guthrie,Tattan,Williams,Black,aBacliocotti(1999) HolmesandMacInn(2003)