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ERIC ED490922: The Future of Public Education in New Orleans. After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the "New" New Orleans PDF

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After Katrina Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans THE URBAN INSTITUTE January 2006 The Future of Public Education in New Orleans Paul Hill and Jane Hannaway W e see an opportunity to do something yet to resume the teacher salary payments it incredible.” These were the words of was forced to suspend. To date, only a few Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco as she dozen teachers have returned to the city. The signed legislation in late November allowing superintendent and top administrators have the state of Louisiana to take over most of returned, as have school board members. New Orleans’ schools. And she just may be Thus, New Orleans is like a rotten borough in right. Education could be one of the bright England: nobody lives there, but there are still spots in New Orleans’ recovery effort, which some pickings for the political class to work may even establish a new model for school over. districts nationally. This is not to say that the The New Orleans parochial school system, current education situation in New Orleans is which educated 40 percent of New Orleans’ not dire; nor should it suggest that the district students, was also devastated. Although has a history as a lighthouse of excellence. Catholic schools have reopened in some of the Hurricane Katrina destroyed most of New highest and driest neighborhoods and some Orleans’ public education system. In the damaged schools elsewhere are reopening, it is central city’s Orleans Parish schools, fewer not clear whether or when all the flooded than 20 of approximately 120 school buildings schools will open. But because the archdiocese remained usable. The storm also largely includes all the parishes in New Orleans, not destroyed the state and local tax bases from just Orleans Parish, many of the students in which the school district draws its revenues. the hardest-hit schools were reassigned to All students, teachers, and administrators were other schools outside the central city. The forced to evacuate, and the school district has New Orleans archdiocese also set up satellite Long before the onslaught of Hurricane Katrina or the chaos of evacuation, New Orleans’ social infrastructure was failing. News coverage of the overcrowded Superdome and the city’s flooded streets exposed the poverty and vulnerability of many residents, especially African Americans. As New Orleans begins to rebuild, can the city avoid the mistakes of the past, instead creating more effective social support for low-income and minority residents? Innovation and experience from other U.S. cities offer promising strategies for reducing the risks of poverty and opening up opportunities for economic security and success. This essay is from an Urban Institute collection that addresses employment, affordable housing, public schools, young children’s needs, health care, arts and culture, and vulnerable populations. All these essays assess the challenges facing New Orleans today and for years to come and recommend tested models for making the city’s social infrastructure stronger and more equitable than it was before Katrina. 2100 M Street, NW • Washington, DC 20037 • (202) 833-7200 • http://www.urban.org schools in other cities to serve its displaced their families behind at least temporarily. students. Overall, 79 percent of Catholic Moreover, some adults might choose to work school students have returned to class. in New Orleans during the rebuilding boom Catholic schools, including schools in Baton without intending to stay. Rouge, have been instructed to take in as At some point, the availability of public many displaced public school students as schools will determine whether families locate possible, with or without support. in New Orleans. But in the first three years or If large numbers of school-age children so after the hurricane, K–12 education in New were to return to New Orleans this year, the Orleans will be a trailing phenomenon, state and city probably could not afford to dependent on how fast the economy and provide schools for them. However, few are housing are rebuilt. The public school likely to return quickly. Most city children population might also be much smaller and now attend schools elsewhere, and no one differently composed in the future if, for knows whether parents will want to uproot example, a building boom attracts large them yet again. Certainly, families will be numbers of Latino workers and families. In reluctant to expose children to molds, toxic short, the location, size, and instructional dust, bad sanitation, and the other health orientation of schools will depend on hazards menacing most flooded developments in the economy and housing. neighborhoods. The relatively few parents The time is ripe to consider transforming the who return to the city to take jobs and to school district in ways appropriate for the restore houses are likely to leave their children demands it faces. Unfortunately, the district’s in safer places. The city’s poorest former history provides few guideposts. residents, many of whom have found housing and income support elsewhere, probably will A System with Shaky Underpinnings not return until their current arrangements New Orleans Parish’s public school system expire. Even then, given the uncertain status of was arguably one of the worst in the country public services and welfare payments, the poor before Hurricane Katrina. In the 2004–2005 can be expected to weigh the risks and school year, only 44 percent of fourth graders rewards of returning to New Orleans very proved proficient in reading and only 26 carefully. percent in math.1 Eighth graders performed Teachers are unlikely to return in large even worse. Twenty-six percent were numbers until jobs are available, and many proficient in reading and 15 percent in math.2 who have found posts elsewhere will never Nearly three-quarters (73.5 percent) of the come back. Most of New Orleans’ legal and schools in the district had received an financial communities have relocated to Baton academic warning or were rated “academically Rouge, and though most of these sectors’ unacceptable” in the 2003–2004 school year workers will be eager to return to New by the state. Thirty-five percent of the schools Orleans, they and the many jobs they generate did not make adequate yearly progress in are not likely to return in large numbers until 2005, according to the No Child Left Behind the electronic, transportation, public health, Act. and public safety infrastructures are in full The school district, facing a $25 to $30 operation. The numbers of utility workers and million deficit for 2005–2006, was famously people working at hotels and the seaport will mismanaged and corrupt (e.g., phantom grow, but news reports confirm the logical employees). New York–based rescue firm expectation that many wage earners will leave 2 After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans Alvarez and Marshal, hired to reconstruct city, and how much money will be available to financial and human resource systems and to serve them? Without knowing, why should the control hiring, firing, and business functions in city commit to a fixed group of teachers and the central office, was just getting started administrators, or to rebuilding a central office before Katrina hit. to maintain a system built for a profoundly Everyone recognized the sorry state of the different situation? Orleans Parish schools and the need for drastic It is difficult to imagine the former remedies. The state board of education had Orleans Parish public school system emerging already seized control of five schools, again anytime soon or, possibly, at all. For the reopening them as charters, and had expected foreseeable future, the city will need to to take over many more within two years. The operate amid uncertainty about how many state declared the district in academic crisis in students it needs to educate and how they will 2004. In the spring of 2005 Mayor Ray Nagin, be distributed across the city. The size, working with business leaders, proposed that location, and composition of the student the city take over 20 of the lowest-performing population is likely to shift from year to year, schools in the district from the local school as neighborhoods are rebuilt and different board and operate them as charter schools.3 parts of the local economy revive. At most In short, the Orleans Parish school district 10,000 students are expected to enroll in the had plenty of trouble well before anyone had district this year, compared with over 65,000 heard the name Katrina. last year. Housing and employment patterns Like all urban school districts, New that emerge in the first years as the city is Orleans’ school district was not built to handle being rebuilt are likely to change and with the kinds of uncertainties created by the them the composition of the school storm’s wrath. The existing system was based population. Right now, all is uncertain. on certain assumptions—a student population For the remainder of the 2005–2006 of a predictable size and neighborhood school year, the number of children returning distribution, and nearly stable funding for each is unlikely to exceed the capacity of open student. Thus, there was some reason for the schools. These include two district-run public district to own school buildings and commit to schools, five charter schools in the Algiers lifetime employment contracts with teachers section of the city, and up to ten parochial and administrators. (More questionable is schools—all located in the least-ravaged parts whether these arrangements were ever of the city. Tulane University has also opened efficient.) It also made sense for the district to a new K–12 charter school in January 2006 in centralize hiring, service provision, federal an existing public school building for children and state grant administration, and other of Tulane staff and other New Orleans routine and predictable functions, even if it did residents, and another nine charter schools not perform them well. across the parish are slated to accept students However justifiable once, these before the academic year ends. By next arrangements no longer make sense for New September, many more children might have Orleans. Most of the buildings are gone and so returned, and at some point in the city’s are many of the neighborhoods. There is grave redevelopment the numbers of school-age uncertainty about students: How many will children might grow very rapidly. How will there be? With what social and economic New Orleans prepare for all the eventualities? characteristics and with what academic needs? How will students be distributed across the The Future of Public Education in New Orleans 3 Demography Will Be Destiny professionals and empty nesters, and housing costs will be high. The size and composition of the school-age population may grow in fits and starts, and • New Orleans will be resettled with the might not stabilize for years. We can envision same or very similar residents as before at least three different scenarios, each moving Katrina, and the school-age population from the short term (the present to September will reflect it. The school population will 2008) to the long term: grow gradually. While it may never reach • New Orleans will go through two quite the pre-hurricane enrollment, it will look different development cycles: The first— as it did in the 2004–2005 school year— rebuilding—will attract many transient over 95 percent minority, primarily black, workers and their families, most of whom and poor, with more than 75 percent of all will live in temporary housing and leave students receiving free or reduced-price for construction jobs elsewhere when the lunches. housing stock and businesses are rebuilt. Under all these scenarios, the demand for These families will not resemble the public education will be much smaller in the former residents. In the second cycle— next few years and then grow. In all but the resettlement—families will move third scenario, student populations and their permanently to New Orleans. Many of locations will change dramatically over time, those returning may resemble families that but at an unpredictable pace. lived in New Orleans before the hurricane, To provide instruction for students who but the size and composition of the turn up, the city will need to attract high- permanent population is largely uncertain. quality school leaders and teachers and to All that is certain in this scenario is that manage schools and instructional programs the long-term situation will differ from the adaptable to changes in student numbers, short-term situation. characteristics, and locations. What can the • New Orleans will be resettled, but the city of New Orleans (and the state of school system will be smaller and the Louisiana, the federal government, and student population will be more evenly national philanthropies) do to ensure the balanced socioeconomically and racially following? than before Katrina. Many of the poorest • Children who turn up in New Orleans can blacks with little reason to come back will attend school as soon as they arrive. not return, and a Latino population • The mix of schools and instructional brought by the construction boom will programs available will match the needs take root in the general metropolitan area. of the changing student population. (In southeastern Florida, the Latino population reportedly increased by 50 • Schools and teachers hired will be percent after Hurricane Andrew.) The city excellent despite the potential hardships will become a financial and entertainment and uncertainties they can expect. center with little industrial base, attracting • The district will not invest in buildings in both white-collar and service jobs. the wrong places, or commit itself to Central-city New Orleans will become instructional programs and people whose largely an adult city, like San Francisco, skills might not be needed later. populated mainly by single urban 4 After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans Coping with Uncertainty While to house schools; attracting quality school Providing Quality leaders and teachers; making sure families know how to find schools; placing children in The legislation proposed by Governor Blanco schools not too far from home or their parents’ in November allows the state to take over any work; linking children with schools that can New Orleans school that falls below the meet their needs (especially children who have statewide average on test scores and place it missed a year of instruction or do not speak into the state’s Recovery School District. English); and rapidly adapting the number, Under this low standard, management of 102 location, and instructional specialties of of the 115 Orleans Parish schools operating schools as the school population changes size before Katrina would be transferred to the and location. state. The governor sees it as an effort to grasp No large city has had to deal with such what she called a “golden opportunity for fundamental issues before, a task made more rebirth.” challenging by the districts limited capacity. In the short run, state officials could run a While New York City enrolls over 50,000 new few schools directly, but the state lacks the students in some years, thanks to domestic manpower and expertise to run a large number migration and international immigration, this of schools. State leaders have no choice but to number represents less than 5 percent of the work through third parties, and if they have city’s school population and the city’s mixture already decided not to organize the new school of schools is rich and adaptable. Dade County district in the mold of the old ones, chartering schools have adapted to several large influxes or contracting are the only options. of Cuban and Central American students, but The Bring New Orleans Back the district was well organized and had Commission has also developed a plan for amassed experience with previous waves of New Orleans schools called the Educational immigration—it had a good idea of what new Network Model. In this model, multiple children would need and how they would providers would also operate individual progress year by year. schools that would band into networks based Louisiana’s and New Orleans’ response to on some similarity such as provider, the challenge must be aimed at two key neighborhood, or school mission. Network objectives: adaptability and quality. The many managers would monitor schools and facilitate unknowns discussed here make it obvious why the exchange of best practices. The district adaptability is important. The importance of office would be kept lean and focus on overall quality is also clear: any student who moves to strategic issues, not school management. It or back to New Orleans as families seek would also oversee services districtwide where economic opportunities could be at risk of there are true advantages to scale and academic difficulties. Such children need integration, such as student information more than ordinary schooling. In addition, management systems and accounting. reemerging or new businesses will be able to The real challenge for New Orleans will attract high-caliber workers only if the schools come in September 2006, when the number of their children can attend are good. students needing schools is likely to be much Aside from the few groups operating the larger. Before then, someone must solve a lot handful of public and private schools now of problems—finding competent groups to run open, New Orleans has no reservoir of schools (whether within the district system, as organizations capable of starting a high- charters, or as contractors); finding buildings quality school. It must attract school providers The Future of Public Education in New Orleans 5 from other parts of Louisiana and the rest of Conversely, New Orleans cannot afford to be the country. One pool of leaders for new a magnet for weak school providers, teachers, schools might be displaced principals and and principals who have failed elsewhere. teachers from the city’s former public and How can these imperatives and constraints parochial schools. Another might be university be reconciled? We make a number of linked educators temporarily displaced from their suggestions. jobs at local universities—Tulane, Dillard, 1. Attract quality school providers and Xavier, the University of New Orleans, and screen out poor ones. Louisiana State. To attract school providers with national reputations and track records for • Appeal directly to Aspire, KIPP, and other developing functioning schools quickly, the national charter and contract school city might turn to the likes of KIPP, Edison, providers. Offer them access to publicly Aspire, and National Heritage Academies.4 rented space and significant freedom in (How New Orleans can both attract potential spending and teacher hiring. Promise them school providers and screen them for quality is the opportunity to create multiple schools discussed below.) in New Orleans if the first school they New schools will need exceptionally good offer attracts students and can demonstrate principals and teachers and unfortunately, effectiveness. New Orleans’ instability and financial • Appeal to university faculty throughout problems will make it difficult to recruit and the South and to public and private school keep the best educators. Moreover, the principals and assistant principals incentives many school districts use to attract formerly based in New Orleans to and keep proven teachers—life tenure, consider taking charters or contracts for generous government pensions, guaranteed new schools. Offer four months’ salary to assignment to a school they like, control over develop a specific school proposal. work assignments, strict limits on working hours, and small classes—might be • Create a screening mechanism for new counterproductive in New Orleans. The city school proposals. Work with the National need not make life commitments to people Association of Charter School Authorizers whose skills it might not need in the future, and the New Schools Venture Fund to and it cannot guarantee educators their choice establish proposal review criteria that of places of work, the nature of work consider the quality of instructional and assignments, or class sizes over the long term. financial plans. Ask public and private New Orleans might need, for example, to run school and system administrators from some very large classes until the numbers of localities with high-performing schools students and teachers can be matched in (e.g., Clayton, Missouri; Bellevue, particular places, and some schools may have Washington; Evanston, Illinois) to read to run on odd schedules to accommodate and review proposals for a fixed stipend parents’ work and commuting times. (e.g., $100 per proposal). Reject the In general, New Orleans needs to attract lowest-rated third of all proposals, request quality school providers, teachers, and revisions on the middle third, and enter principals who value diverse work into contracts with the top third. assignments and who will at least consider • Issue a new request for proposals every teaching in one school for a while and then three months until the supply of schools moving to another school (or even city). 6 After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans has caught up with the need or no new 3. Screen individual applicants carefully. proposals are forthcoming. • Establish an applicant-screening center • Guarantee individuals who write winning that reviews paperwork, checks proposals a minimum of 2 years’ salary. If references, and interviews applicants. their school is forced to close for any • Require every applicant to take at least a reason other than their own misconduct, verbal ability test, similar to the SAT. Ask make them first in line when the applicants to provide evidence of teaching opportunity to open or work in another effectiveness, including (wherever school emerges. possible) achievement gains in classes they have taught. 2. Attract a large, talented pool of • Usher all candidates after an initial applicants for jobs as teachers and applications screening through a rigorous, principals. multifaceted selection process (perhaps Though charter schools will do their own with the help of Teach for America and hiring, they will need help attracting good the New Teacher Project) that attempts to teachers and administrators to New Orleans in identify perseverance, flexibility, the first place. To attract a strong professional leadership, and other difficult-to-measure labor pool, the same agencies that charter attributes that contribute to success in schools can try the following: challenging teaching situations. This • Offer high salaries for teachers and process could be waived for National provide portable pensions with immediate Board Certified teachers. vesting, including generous health and life insurance without preexisting condition • Do not permit hiring of substandard exclusions. applicants, even if it means temporarily operating schools with larger class sizes • Recruit teachers nationally with messages than intended. stressing service, adventure, selectivity, and opportunity for high pay. • Allow teachers who have worked together successfully to apply as teams. • Provide teachers and principals free or subsidized housing until privately owned • Use an intensive summer-school program rentals become readily available. to provide extra stipends for teachers and give students a head start in school, and to • Provide opportunities for talented further screen potential teachers by educators to bring new ideas and to have a observing performance. say in running the schools, by being open to new ways of teaching and organizing 4. Define rigorous hiring terms for teachers instruction. and principals. • Negotiate with higher-performing districts • Make the hiring of fully screened elsewhere to allow their teachers to work applicants contingent on a school or in New Orleans for one to three years school provider’s decision to hire them. without losing any seniority when they return home. • Allow schools to offer contingent tenure to the best teachers, assuring them a job at the school as long as it stays open. The Future of Public Education in New Orleans 7 • Avoid creating any tenure commitments 6. Make the system adaptable to changes in outside individual schools; allow other students’ location, demography, or needs. schools to consider hiring displaced • Avoid investing prematurely in school educators, but do not pressure them or facilities; at least wait until neighborhoods offer incentives. and student population needs are well • Welcome back teachers who worked in established. the city’s public and parochial schools, but • Rent classroom space in mixed-use offer them a new employment deal: they buildings whenever possible. will work for individual schools and their • Allow students to establish school- work assignments will shift from time to attendance eligibility in Orleans Parish time with trends in the school population schools through either residence or and school providers’ needs. They will parents’ employment in the parish, thereby also have to go through the same rigorous both reducing student mobility as families selection process as other teachers. settle and promoting a heterogeneous student population. 5. Make it possible for individual schools to hire teachers and provide attractive Taken together, these arrangements might not salaries, benefits, and working conditions. prove to be enough. But at least they are steps • Put virtually all public education money in the right direction—toward attracting substantial numbers of school providers and into the schools on a per pupil basis, with educators to run and staff new schools for the all state, federal, and local funding city’s children. To make these arrangements (including facilities and maintenance possible, federal, state, and local governments accounts) combined and transferred to the must act in unaccustomed ways and school a child attends. philanthropies must provide new forms of aid. • Let schools buy the goods and services they need on the national market. Resist Financial and Institutional developing a central office that would tax Arrangements schools for services, and allow schools to An adaptable, high-quality set of schools in develop their own buying co-ops. New Orleans requires the following: • Allow schools the flexibility to enhance Money to make one-time investments in teachers’ salaries, to develop innovative new school start-ups. Although most public staffing plans (including instructional school systems spend little or nothing on coaches, team leaders, aides, etc.), and to finding and screening new educators and adjust class sizes and establish other school providers, those functions are instructional conditions, such as use of indispensable in New Orleans and they must technology, that best meet their needs. be funded. • Allow schools to give their employees One possible funding source is the foundations—among them the Bill and already-established benefit packages, Melinda Gates Foundation, the Walton Family perhaps with an additional 401(k)-style Foundation, and the Broad Foundation—that pension benefit. have rushed to the city eager to help rebuild public education. These foundations are comfortable with the idea of charter and 8 After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans contract schools and have already invested situation is more difficult to predict and substantially in school providers and such depends on the broader economic recovery quality-control organizations as the National and the emergence of a new tax base. At a Association of Charter School Authorizers. minimum, the state and federal governments Foundations could pay stipends for individuals should continue to provide the per capita share preparing to open new schools and fund some of costs they have in the past (covering about of their own current grantees (e.g., the two-thirds of the total revenue), including National Association of Charter School amounts appropriated for capital expenditures. Authorizers and the New Schools Venture The federal government should combine all its Fund) to screen potential school providers and categorical aid programs into one lump sum to others (e.g., Teach for America, the New afford local flexibility; it could also replace Teacher Project) to help screen potential the lost local taxes (which paid about $1,200 teachers and administrators. Foundations per pupil) with special aid, perhaps an could also sponsor a national conference for extension of the Impact Aid, to cover any possible providers on opportunities to start returning public and parochial students. This schools in New Orleans. federal support would continue until local In addition, the federal government has sales and property tax revenues grew to some provided $20 million to states to help charter per pupil share, maybe 50 percent, of pre- schools serve students affected by the hurricane levels. hurricane. Funds can be used for school start- State and federal funding for enhanced up and expansion, among other purposes. The teacher salaries. Starting with a 50-percent federal government has also provided another premium, this would attract enough applicants $100 million to Louisiana for help with so that a top-flight cadre of teachers could be restarting school operations in areas identified identified and schools could have some choice as disaster areas as a result of Katrina and about whom they employ. Rita. With respect to compensation Louisiana A scholarship plan under which all New schools now rank 46th, with an average Orleans students, no matter where each went teacher salary of $37,123, according to the to school previously, can take a set amount of 2004 American Federation of Teachers survey money to any local school. This amount of salaries. The average teacher salary in the (including funds for facilities rental) could country is $46,597, nearly $10,000 more. And come from a combination of state and federal while the average Mississippi salary is similar aid. Far more than a voucher plan, the idea is (ranked 47th, with $36,217), the Texas to prompt the private sector to open more average is $40,476. A 50-percent premium schools and thus promote school quality, as would bring New Orleans salaries in line with discussed below. The federal government has those in Connecticut—the top-paying state made $645 million available from the with an average salary of $56,516—and Emergency Impact Aid program for the probably attract enough good applicants to current school year for displaced students, staff the New Orleans schools. The premium even students attending private schools. This would help compensate teachers for difficult amounts to over $5,000 per student in federal living conditions and the lack of job security. money alone and presumably would be Louisiana also pays National Board Certified available to returning New Orleans students. teachers $5,000 extra annually, so this A state-federal partnership to fund the additional incentive could help attract these scholarships. In the longer term, the funding select teachers to New Orleans. Additionally, The Future of Public Education in New Orleans 9 teachers could be offered a two-year guarantee operations plans from a wide variety of of employment. potential providers. It is critical that this body The increased salary cost could be covered commence work as soon as possible to make partly by a reallocation of the school district’s judicious decisions about school providers and funds. Classroom instruction (including adult, ensure that New Orleans is ready for a special, and vocational education) historically possibly large influx of new students in represented only about 55 percent of the September 2006. The firm of Alvarez and district’s expenditures, and total instruction, Marshall should be retained to manage the which included pupil support programs routine financial and human resources (guidance counselors, librarians, etc.) and management and information systems, so as instructional staff services (professional not to distract the authorizing agency from its development and curriculum staff), important educational work. represented only a little over 60 percent of the Initially, at least in elementary schools, budget. The model we have proposed should reading and math triage schools would receive result in significant savings in other high priority. The authorizer would also expenditure categories, allowing a larger share administer state tests to all students at all to be devoted to school-level instructional schools and publish the results. Focused on effort. If a rough approximation of at least such basics, schools would not be required to regular classroom instruction assumes 10,000 cover other aspects of the state curriculum for students, an average class size of 25, and an two years. Schools would be required to admit average salary of $60,000, the per student cost students by lottery but could set standards for for classroom teachers would be $2,400 per student attendance and deportment. The student. With a benefit package of, say, 40 authorizing agency would encourage percent, the total classroom-level instructional developing specialized schools for students expenditure would be $3,360 per student. who need special interventions. Certainly there would be other costs, but The local school-authorizing agency the point here is that if classroom instruction would also audit schools’ books and withdraw had first draw on resources, the amounts school licenses for fiscal and academic necessary to fund a high-caliber instructional nonperformance. The agency would staff are well within the realm of possibility. continually control quality by routinely The state could simply follow its current reviewing both academic and financial funding formula, but the federal government performance. The agency’s head would serve would have to extend aid until the local tax a five-year term and could be removed only by base grew sufficiently, as we suggested unanimous agreement among the governor, earlier. mayor of New Orleans, chair of the state A new local school-authorizing agency school board, and maybe the archbishop of should be created; it alone would be New Orleans. authorized to permit a group to run a school A facilities authority capitalized by the with public funds. This agency, headed by a federal government with about $150 million state-appointed superintendent and staffed by to lease space in commercial buildings that 5 to 10 other administrators, would be meet codes and enter contracts with supported by state appropriations (at 1 to 3 developers who are building or rehabbing percent of the combined operating budgets of mixed-use buildings. This authority would all functioning New Orleans schools) to accept sublease to schools, which would pay rent applications detailing educational and from their per pupil stipends. 10 After Katrina: Rebuilding Opportunity and Equity into the New New Orleans

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