ERIC ED478513: Leading in Difficult Times: Are Urban School Boards Up to the Task? Policy Trends.

10 Pages·2003·0.24 MB·English

by  ERIC

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AUTHOR
Leading in Difficult Times: Are Urban School Boards Up to the
TITLE
Task? Policy Trends.
WestEd, San Francisco, CA.
INSTITUTION
Department of Education, Washington, DC.
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2003-00-00
PUB DATE
NOTE
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ED-01-00-0012
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*Boards of Education; City Government
DESCRIPTORS
*Educational Change;
;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Governance; Government
School Relationship; School Districts; *Urban Schools
IDENTIFIERS *Reform Efforts
ABSTRACT
This brief describes the challenges facing urban school
boards, reviews the governance alternatives being tried in various cities,
and highlights some related considerations. The challenges school boards face
vary, but some themes are common across urban areas:
(1) an ill-defined role
can impair effectiveness;
(2) competing political interests can hinder a
board's impact;
(3) board selection processes can limit a board's
representational nature; and (4) boards are constrained by the information
they receive. A number of board reform efforts have emerged in districts
across the United States. The first, role reform, more clearly defines the
line between policy and operational decision making, and clarifies
expectations for staff to diminish micromanagement. Electoral reform changes
the way in which school board members are elected. Mayoral control is another
reform approach that places more responsibility in the hands of the mayor as
external actor for school district decisions. By itself, strong, positive
leadership on the local school board is seldom enough to overcome the
systemic problems that plague many large urban school districts. However, the
critical role of the school board is undeniable, and worth continued
examination. (Contains 33 endnotes and 22 references.)
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Leading in Difficult Times:
Are Urban School Boards Up to the Task?
J
whom they should bring their concerns.
As urban school systems across the U.S. strive to meet expectations of high achievement
The confusion is compounded by con-
for all students, attention increasingly focuses on how they are structured and governed. The
stantly shifting reform agendas, as well
quality of leadership is a key issue, but as one refonn effort after another falls short of its
as by growing numbers of federal and
state mandates that must be met even
aims, many have begun asking whether even the most talented and committed leaders can
as districts develop and pursue their own
surmount barriers that may be inherent in the systems' very architecture.
local goals. For example, when states
touted site-based management as a way to
shift decision-making to those closest to
At the heart of school governance is
cities have already enacted school board
students, little was said about the board's
the school board. From the inception of
change, in some cases radical change.
role vis -a -vis the new responsibilities of
These actions are highly controversial
public education in the U.S., the school
school site leaders.4
as the body representing the
and raise fundamental questions about
hoard
has been
community's
the hounds of democratic institutions.
electorate
And when federal
Title
statutes
I
charged with ensuring that schools are
assessment and
include
changed
to
Because reform efforts have only re-
serving students as they should. Under
reporting requirements, these were not
cently begun, research on their impact
today's definition of accountability, that
necessarily aligned with local and/or state
is limited and inconclusive. But for those
means setting high standards and ensur-
In so
requirements for some districts.
interested in following this trend
poli-
ing that all students in the system achieve
complex a decision-making environment,
communities,
cymakers,
reformers,
well under those standards. The issues
it is not surprising to find boards accused
and others concerned about the perfor-
involved have led to contentious hoard
of micromanagement or disjointed lead-
mance of our urban schools
this brief
meetings in districts of every size. But in
ership, warranted or not.
describes the challenges facing urban
a number of big cities
where politics,
school boards; reviews the governance al-
demographics, and the sheer size of the
COMPETING POLITICAL INTERESTS CAN
ternatives being tried in various cities; and
school district and its budget make the
School boards'
HINDER A BOARD'S IMPACT.
highlights some related considerations.
challenges more complex
responsibilities are considerable. Their
focal
a
point of debate has become the board
job is to ensure a sound education for
itself. An array of stakeholders in these
the community's children, and in some
Challenges Facing
cities suggest that the school board as
large districts, this entails overseeing a
traditionally defined is ill-matched to the
Urban School Boards
multi-million- or -billion-dollar budget.
task that needs accomplishing.
Yet board elections are characterized
Though reports of challenges facing
by low voter turnout and a widespread
Some district reformers contend that
school boards differ in their particulars
lack of voter familiarity with candidates'
requiring school board candidates
to
from city to city, some themes are com-
conditions that allow organized special
have greater experience and board mem-
mon across urban areas. These include
interest groups to exert significant influ-
bers to have training could strengthen a
ence on school board elections.
board's
Others propose
effectiveness.'
AN ILL-DEFINED ROLE CAN
IMPAIR
that unless the very structure and role
Many boards
Because the school board holds sway
EFFECTIVENESS.
BOARD
of school boards are changed, even the
are unclear about their role and how it
over issues of importance to traditional
most capable leaders may be unable to
differs from that of the superintendent.;
such as the teacher
interest groups
are unsure to
improve student achievement.2
turn,
Constituents,
Several
contract to the teacher unions
in
such
BEET COPY AVAILAna
2
LEADING IN DIFFICULT TIMES: ARE URBAN SCHOOL BOARDS UP TO THE TASK?
groups have an important stake in who
feel their vote will affect the outcome
oral control. These approaches vary with
gets elected. Big-money campaigns can
anyway.' Irrespective of the reason, some
their unique definitions of what primarily
result. Other interest groups may be less
reformers are concerned about the poten-
limits board effectiveness.
deep-rooted and may have fewer resourc-
tial results: a school board that does not
ROLE REFORM
es, but still be influential at election time,
represent the demographics and values of
such as those advocating prayer or sex
the larger community9 and, therefore, is
Large-entity decision-making has two
education in school. Choice advocates
not held accountable by large segments
and op-
distinct organizational
parts:
whether supporting public charter
of that community. In working to amend
erational. In school districts, the board
schools or private vouchers
are also
traditional board election systems, these
is the organizational leader, while the
growing in number and effectiveness.
reformers are hoping to instill greater
superintendent oversees operations. This
The generally low voter turnout for board
board accountability by engaging a larger
arrangement by no means excludes the
elections allows any of these groups to
portion of the public, first in the election
superintendent from helping to develop
have greater influence than they other-
itself, then in the broader district deci-
the vision for district improvement. But
wise might.
sion-making process.
the size and complexity of an urban
require that the board
school district
Beyond the election process, clashing
BOARDS ARE CONSTRAINED BY THE
focus on district-level policy decisions,
interests can severely hobble
special
INFORMATION TIlEY RECEIVE. Poor data
while empowering the superintendent
board members' ability to work as a
systems and lax reporting requirements to
and holding him or her accountable for
cohesive group." For example, ethnic
date have hindered board effectiveness.
translating these policies into action. The
groups may be competing for the same
This will become more of an issue now
superintendent, in turn, may empower a
resources. Similarly, civil
rights advo-
that new federal statutes emphasize the
cadre of staff
principals and teachers
cates working to desegregate schools can
collecting and monitoring of longitudinal
to carry out school and classroom im-
be at loggerheads with those interested
data for school and student performance.
provement, but these staff work within the
preserving neighborhood schools,
in
A comprehensive data system capable of
policy bounds established by the board.
even if the schools are segregated due to
collecting such information is particu-
housing patterns.
larly critical in urban districts because
The goal of role reform is to provide
of their high student transience and
some guidance for board members who
THE BOARD
SELECTION
PROCESSES
mobility rates. To make sound decisions
want to more clearly define the line
CAN LIMIT A BOARD'S REPRESENTATIONAL
about improving low-performing schools,
between policy and operational deci-
NATURE. Whether school board candi-
boards need accurate, high-quality data
sion-making and govern according to
dates are elected at large, by area, or by
as well as training in how to interpret
this distinction.
Expectations for staff
cumulative vote, the goal is to give lo-
and use it.
become clear, and micromanagement is
cal constituents a voice.'
However, the
diminished.
frequency of low voter turnout, coupled
with the role of special interests men-
One way to approach role reform is to
Urban School Board
tioned above, has diminished real citizen
have board members commit to being a
Reform Efforts
Voter apathy toward school board
voice.
policy board: Governance theorist and
elections may have many sources. Some
consultant John Carver developed the
research suggests that low turnout is evi-
A number of board reform efforts have
Policy Governance approach, currently
emerged in districts across the nation:
dence of citizens who have little interest
the best-known method of policy board
in school matters or, if interested, don't
role reform, electoral reform, and may-
reform. From broad experience with
page 2
West Ed > » POLICY TRENDS
POTENTIAL BOARD PITFALLS
ed to exercise this internal accountability
in different ways, including self-policing
When challenges of role definition, power politics, selection processes, and/or inadequate
members' activities by applying sanctions
data are not addressed, the following problems can result:
to those who do not adhere to the reform
Micromanagement. Without a clear role, school board members often blur the line
tenets," laying down guidelines articulat-
between governing a system and operating it.1°
District staff contend that board
ing what policy decision-making does
members should focus on long-term policy decisions and leave the day-to-day opera-
and does not include, and measuring
tions to the superintendent and central office staff.
each agenda item against how it reflects a
Lack of commitment to a unified reform vision. Political and structural constraints
focus on student achievement.'4
(e.g., an unclear role, ineffective selection processes, and weak data infrastructure) im-
However, reports from nonprofit orga-
pede the ability of board members to coalesce around a single reform agenda." With-
nizations using Policy Governance indi-
out a clear sense of what they are responsible to do, board members may be more likely
to align themselves with powerful special interest organizations that have established
cate that the stringent task differentiation
agendas and can potentially propel a board member to higher political office. These nar-
that policy board reform may require can
row constituent concerns cloud the larger picture of academic success for all students.
result in fewer opportunities for central
office staff and board members to col-
Frequent, destabilizing changes in policy direction. When board members have
laborate on setting policy and operations
disparate visions for district reform and different levels of knowledge and expertise, it
standards. There is also no evidence yet
becomes very difficult to maintain a consistent policy direction. District reforms will
that ties such a reform directly to im-
come and go and staff will take each new reform less seriously. This makes it difficult
to mobilize the system to improve teaching and learning.
proved student and school performance
in large, urban districts.
Holding the
::
superintendent ac-
nonprofit boards, Carver concludes that
In addition, role reform relies heavily
countable for clear and measurable
the most competent members are often
on individual board members to commit
district goals while allowing the
unable to overcome the structural prob-
to governing in a way that does not con-
superintendent to set performance
lems of boards.
fuse their role with that of the superinten-
goals for district and school staff.
dent or other district actors." Critics sug-
By employing
Governance,
Policy
gest that school board members are not
::
Developing policies for handling
board members take time to identify what
likely to make this transition on their own
constituent concerns that reflect
types of decisions are in their purview as
and will adopt policy board procedures
the
board's
responsibility
all
to
trustees of sustained school district prog-
only if required by state legislation.16
students rather than to powerful
ress. By the same token, board members
special interests.
But
several district boards and county
identify what kinds of decisions they will
boards of education have implemented
Supporters contend that role reform
defer to district management or staff."
Policy Governance, as did the Dallas
brings much needed clarity to the func-
Some specific steps boards may take in
Independent School District, which was
tion of school boards. By their very na-
adopting Policy Governance include
troubled by the operational interference
ture, policy boards provide their own in-
::
of members who, for example, met with
ternal set of checks and balances because
Developing a test for what makes
principals and involved themselves in
board members are accountable to each
a policy decision different from an
operational one.
other for their decisions. Boards have opt-
personnel decisions."
3
page
LEADING IN DIFFICULT TIMES: ARE URBAN SCHOOL BOARDS UP TO THE TASK?
The Council
ELECTORAL REFORM
Great
of
the
that board memberships do not reflect
City
Schools, whose membership includes ur-
the demographics of the electorate:"
Historically, school boards were estab-
ban districts with the largest enrollments
lished to ensure local access to education
percent of board members
in the nation, has identified sharpening
68
211
decision-making, but concerns about fair
reported an income of at
or demarcating the board's role as a
least
and equitable representation emerged as
$60,000, with 28 percent of that
prerequisite for reform. The Council's
early as the 1950s. At the center of the
group making more than $100,000
recent report advocates a new board role
debate is the traditional at-large system of
annually;
wherein "a new board majority (or other
electing school board members, in which
governing unit) focuses on policy-level
75 percent held a four-year college
candidates are selected from anywhere in
decisions that support improved student
degree and 46 percent had earned
the district.
achievement rather than on the day-to-
graduate degrees; and
day operations of the district."'s
Electoral reform suggests that such a
80 percent stated that they were
system can disenfranchise diverse con-
EZ
This recommendation emerged from
white; 6.5 percent African Ameri-
stituencies of parents, communities, and
an examination of four urban districts
can; and 3.1 percent Hispanic.
others most directly involved with public
Houston, Sacramento, Charlotte-Meck-
schools because these groups are often
lenburg (North Carolina), and a portion
In many urban areas, as organized
unable to amass the numbers necessary
of the Chancellor's District in New York
groups of district voters
specifically
to significantly influence election results.
City
that had recently showed growth
those residing in lower-income and/or
in overall student performance, narrowed
have begun to feel
minority sectors
In
system,
this
AT-LARGE VOTING.
the achievement gap between white and
further disenfranchised from their school
school board candidates can reside any-
minority students, and improved at a
boards, they have pushed to reform the
where in the district, and voters select
more rapid rate than the state average.19
structure of school board elections. Be-
candidates to represent the whole district.
cause most districts have traditionally
Representation issues surface primarily in
Several state school board associations
used an at-large voting system, electoral
have developed their own governance
large, urban districts where housing and
reform has usually consisted of shifting
standards and training programs. For
wealth segregation contribute to school
from at-large voting to either election-by-
boards composed mainly of members
example, the California School Boards
area or cumulative voting.
from distinct middle- and upper-class
Governance
Association's
Professional
Standards provide
members with
white locales.
its
ELECTION-BY-AREA. Many opponents
guidelines on a range of key topics,
of the at-large system prefer,
instead,
In a frequently used hypothetical ex-
including how to
establish an
effec-
a single-member district system under
ample, if residents of a city with a 20 per-
tive board structure focused on student
which board members would be elected
cent ethnic or racial minority population
achievement, how to work cooperatively
from distinct geographic areas in the dis-
used an at-large system to elect their five
with the superintendent, and what the
trict. Theoretically, this alternate election
board members, and if residents voted for
key jobs of a school board are.
method would equalize the access to and
candidates of their own race or ethnicity,
composition of school boards along racial
Moreover, the national Institute for Ed-
every minority candidate would lose by a
and ethnic lines in a way that at-large
ucational Leadership (IEL) provides pol-
four-to-one margin.2'
elections do not guarantee. (Congruent
icy board training and assistance. In fact,
As recently as
1998, school board
most advocacy efforts on behalf of policy with this logic, in 1967 Congress adopted
member responses to surveys conducted
legislation mandating that U.S. congres-
boards have been based on a 1986 IEL re-
by the American School Board Journal
port that is considered the most complete
sional representatives be selected using
and Virginia Tech University indicate
existing study of school boards.2°
an election-by-area system.)
4
page
WestEd > » POLICY TRENDS
Although districts shifting from at-
when a city mayor assumes authority
didates, allocate three-and-a-half votes to
to single-member voting have
large
each of two candidates, or give all seven
for a district lying within the city limits.
experienced greater racial and ethnic
votes to a single candidate. This method
Mayors assume one or a combination of
representation, this voting system is ad-
would enable a
small contingent of
several powers: (a) they appoint part of or
vantageous only for groups that are geo-
school nurses and counselors,
people
the whole school board; (b) they select
graphically concentrated and can mus-
for example
to pool their votes behind
the superintendent; or (c) they become
ter the political power to have districts
a single candidate with some reasonable
the primary decision-maker in a district,
redrawn in their favor. Its value is more
hope of success.
leaving the board with an advisory role.
problematic when any minority group
whether defined by race, ethnicity,
Small-district school
boards
in
Il-
Reformers suggest that because the
special interest, or any other factor
linois, New Mexico,
South Dakota,
is
public sees school boards as amorphous,
not concentrated in a single geographic
Alabama, and Texas have adapted their
distant institutions, school boards can-
area and/or is not large enough to be in-
at-large systems to include cumulative
not be effective organizational leaders.
fluential even if it is concentrated."
voting. With its May 2000 school board
Rather than seek remedy in restructured
elections, Amarillo, Texas became the
school boards, these reformers advocate
In the same vein, the approach is less
largest U.S. jurisdiction, and one of 57
shifting authority from the board to an
useful when several geographically con-
Texas communities, to use cumulative
centrated minority groups compete for
external actor who can engage stakehold-
voting." Many advocates agree
that
favorable redistricting. One such case oc-
ers and use their input to inform district
cumulative voting "protects minorities
curred in the 1991 New York City Coun-
decisions, namely the city mayor.
from tyranny without giving privileges
redistricting effort when Hispanics,
cil
to a minority of the moment."26 How-
Asian Americans, and African Americans
Several versions of mayoral control have
ever, just as with single-member district
were all pushing for different redistricting
appeared in urban districts nationwide.
voting, cumulative voting can result in
plans. Another critique of election-by-
While mayoral systems differ by city, re-
fractious boards that are unwilling or un-
area argues that this method obstructs
searchers identify four levels of control:27
able to unify around a shared vision for
decision-making focused on the good of
district improvement.
the district as a whole. Area interests and
Low. Mayors have either threat-
11
narrow thinking can proliferate.24
ened
control spur
mayoral
to
While at-large elections continue to be
district improvement or supported
used in a majority of districts nationwide,
CUMULATIVE VoTING. A newer adapta-
slates of board candidates in an ef-
is important to recognize the efforts
it
tion of the at-large system may present
fort to influence policy in districts
of several districts that have set out in
a way to avoid the limitations of single-
where
and
school
district
city
search of something different. As yet,
member districting while correcting the
boundaries
not
congruent.
are
is no research to
unfortunately, there
shortfalls of at-large elections. Cumulative
Used in Akron, Ohio; Los Angeles
show whether these methods directly af-
voting enables even the smallest organized
and Sacramento, California.
fect teaching and learning in the districts
group to pool its votes to affect the com-
adopting them.
position of school boards. This approach
District
voters
OS LOW/MODERATE.
allows each voter to either spread his or
approve a ballot initiative to give
her votes evenly among the candidates or
MAYORAL CONTROL
mayors the authority to appoint a
concentrate the votes on one candidate or
portion of the school board. Power
In a number of urban districts, people
some small number of candidates.
is shared with city electorates, state
are looking to a third and significantly
For example,
governors, or borough presidents.
district electing
more controversial approach to reform-
in
a
seven board members, a voter might
Oakland,
ing school boards: mayoral control. As
California;
in
Used
allocate one vote each to the seven can-
Washington, D.C.; and Baltimore.
its name suggests, mayoral control occurs
5
gage
LEADING IN DIFFICULT TIMES: ARE URBAN SCHOOL BOARDS UP TO THE TASK?
of expertise needed for that city's school
MODERATE. State legislation allows
of the positive impact mayoral control has
city mayors to appoint some or all
board, ensuring that there is a balance
had in cities across the nation, noting that
of the local school board; however,
of education, management, operational,
centralized authority has hastened curric-
mayors have chosen to empower
and
community,
ular changes and facilities improvements
experience.
district
district superintendents to act on
Finally, a single government official
in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland. In
is
their behalf. Used in Detroit.
held accountable for the city's K-12 edu-
any case, in districts with mayoral control,
Kirst reports no indication that people
cation.28 District constituents can look to
Mayors
have
exclusive
HIGH.
:1
the mayor rather than to a collection of
want to revert to a inore traditional form of
given by state legislators
power
board members whose names they may or
district oversight. In fact, Cleveland voters
to oversee the district, including
may not be able to recall. By shifting the
reauthorized mayoral control indefinitely
appointing school board members.
authority over a district's governing body, by 70 percent in November 2002.
Mayors have used this power to
alter the structure, mission, and
voters enable the mayor to be responsible
In a six-city study32 that focused on
resources available to their school
for what happens in their schools.
system changes resulting from shifts in
districts. Board members act as ad-
district governance, three of the
Opponents claim, however, that such
visors to the city mayor, who is the
cities
primary decision-maker. Used in
a shift leaves unchecked the potential for
(Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia) were
Chicago, Boston, Cleveland, and
excessive or corrupt interference, the very
experimenting with mayoral control. The
New York City.
reason school boards came into being.29
study found that these three districts expe-
Others note that, given a mayor's numer-
rienced moderately encouraging impacts
In cities that have low and low/moderate
from the structural changes. While all
ous responsibilities, he or she may not have
levels of mayoral control, board members
three showed some increase in political
the knowledge or time to adequately lead
continue to make most of the decisions
support of district reforms and greater
district reform, limiting how accountable
traditional to school boards; however, the
alignment of their school and state ac-
the mayor can be for education."
mayor may have taken steps to place his or
countability systems, none experienced a
her candidates in board positions. In cit-
Some opponents worry that locating
decrease in dropout rate, improvement in
ies with higher levels of mayoral control,
district accountability in a single political
secondary student test scores, or a reduc-
board members act in an advisory capacity
actor increases the opportunity for state
tion in the gap between white and minor-
officials to intervene or take over low-
to the mayor, who will either empower the
ity students. Boston and Chicago had a
district superintendent to make operation-
performing urban districts. For example,
slight improvement in the coordination
al decisions or look to a mayoral appointee
a mayor who has control over appointing
of city and school services, but did not
to carry out these decisions.
a majority of the school board may see
approach the much higher predictions
this as independent power that can be
of advocates.
Supporters suggest mayoral control cre-
transferred to the state in exchange for
ates a direct link between a city's children's
greater resources. In 1997, for instance,
services and education. City mayors not
Considerations
Baltimore's mayor traded his authority to
only have access to additional funding
appoint the district school board for $203
streams, but they are in positions to estab-
million in state education funding.31
Urban districts need policy stability and
lish collaborations between city agencies
consistency to make and sustain difficult
Most reformers agree that it would be
and district offices that offer similar or com-
changes.
virtually impossible to directly tie distinct
plementary services to the city's students.
improvements in classroom practice to
With numerous and sometimes con-
Additionally, the mayor can make ap-
governance changes like mayoral control.
flicting policy decisions flooding school
pointments based on a particular mix
boards from state and federal offices,
However, Kirst (2002) highlights evidence
page 6
WestEd > » POLICY TRENDS
Many school boards may require state
boards can find themselves navigating
board reforms as they relate to scho.ol and
to strengthen
and federal assistance
student improvement.
new requirements that blur their focus on
their data infrastructure.
local decision-making. To the extent that
By itself, strong, positive leadership on
policymakers at all levels can be clearer
A growing emphasis on annual and lon-
the local school board is seldom enough
and more consistent in their dictates, lo-
gitudinal performance indicators means
to overcome the systemic problems that
cal school boards may be better able to
that district leaders must establish reliable
generate a single plan for district reform
plague many large, urban school districts
and meaningful data systems. Given the
that both includes clear local objectives
in this country. Yet its critical role is unde-
challenges of instituting such systems in
and folds in state and federal priorities.
niable and worth continued examination.
a big urban district, urban school boards
may need financial help as well as techni-
Context is critical.
cal assistance in such areas as the use of
data tools to compare their performance
1 Carol, Cunningham, Danzberger, Kirst, McCloud, & Usdan
In considering board reform of any
(1986); Goodman & Zimmerman (2000).
results to those of similar districts.
sort, it is critical to pay attention to the
2 National School Boards Foundation (1999).
historical and educational context of the
3 Carol et al. (1986); Danzberger & Usdan (1994); lbdras (1993).
particular city and district.
Reformers
School board reform is not a panacea.
4 Education Commission of the States (1999); Ziebarth (1999).
must consider the district size, whether
5 Goodman & Zimmerman (2000).
all the communities served by the district
While governance
critically
im-
is
6 Carol et al. (1986); Danzberger (1994); Danzberger & Usdan
are within a single city's jurisdiction, and
portant for any comprehensive reform,
(1994).
the nature of political interest groups in
7 Goodman & Zimmerman (2000); Land (2002).
a school system transformation strategy
8 Land (2002).
the district.
clearly must also address a host of other is-
9 Danzberger (1994).
sues, ranging from teacher and principal
For example, in a district like Los
10 Carol et al. (1986); Danzberger & Usdan (1994); Todras (1993).
quality to resource use to reform fatigue.
Angeles, which spans more than
II Carol et al. (1986).
16
Yet the role of school boards is critical.
It
city jurisdictions, the question of may-
12 Carver (1997).
deserves more analysis and research, par-
13 Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts (2001).
oral takeover would become, "Which
ticularly to gain a clearer understanding
14 Dawson & Quinn (2001).
If a district's school board has
mayor?"
of how school board policy and practice
15 Murray (1994).
a history of micromanaging, policy board
affect student achievement."
16 Danzberger (1994).
reform may be the best option for improv-
17 Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts (2001).
ing teaching and learning. If, instead, the
18 Council of the Great City Schools (2002), p. xvii.
major challenge relates to how members
Conclusions
19 Ibid.
are elected instead of how they operate,
20 Carol et al. (1986); Land (2002).
an electoral reform strategy may be a bet-
Many questions remain about improv-
21 Tabarrok & Bohanon (1998).
ter choice.
ing the effectiveness of school boards in
22 National School Boards Association (1998).
large urban districts. With districts now
23 Tabarrok & Bohanon (1998).
Finally, organizations representing the
expected to implement expansive fed-
24 Ibid.
interests of district employees, the metro-
25 Center for Voting and Democracy (2002).
eral education policies, the job of school
politan business sector, and ethnic com-
26 Tabarrok & Bohanon (1998), p. 22.
boards grows only more complex and the
munities may view some of these reforms
27 Kirst (2002).
questions more urgent. This review of
as having a potentially negative effect on
28 Ziebarth (1999).
current efforts to improve school board
their power or constituencies. Therefore,
29 Kirst & Bulkley (2001).
performance highlights the need both
bringing together a multiplicity of stake-
30 Ziebarth (1999).
for more research on how board decision-
holders and being clear about the value
31 Kirst (2002).
any one reform holds for a particular
making affects student achievement and
32 Cuban & Usdan (2002).
for evaluations of past and current school
district is vital.
33 Land (2002).
_71
7
page
[
LEADING IN DIFFICULT TIMES: ARE URBAN SCHOOL BOARDS UP TO THE TASK?
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