ERIC ED469236: Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia.

33 Pages·2000·0.6 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 469 236
CE 083 892
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia.
TITLE
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
INSTITUTION
Organization, Bangkok (Thailand). Principal Regional Office
for Asia and the Pacific.
PUB DATE 2000-00-00
NOTE
32p.; For related studies, see CE 083 891-896.
AVAILABLE FROM
For full text: http://www.unescobkk.org/education/
appeal/girls&women/indonesia.p df.
PUB TYPE
Reports
Research (143)
EDRS PRICE
EDRS Price MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*Access to Education; Adult Basic Education; Attitude Change;
Developing Nations; *Economic Development; Elementary
Secondary Education; Employed Women; *Equal Education;
Females; Foreign Countries; Illiteracy; Literacy Education;
Public Policy; Sex Bias; *Sex Fairness; Social Status;
*Womens Education
IDENTIFIERS
*Barriers to Participation; *Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Cultural and socioeconomic barriers to girls' and women's
education are reflected in the female literacy rate, average wage, and girls'
enrollment, dropout, attainment, and participation rates in formal education.
Development of national education has been given top priority in the
Indonesian national development. The education system is organized via these
two different channels: school education and out-of-school education.
Operational strategies to improve the status of women are to plan and
implement government policies and coordinate all activities and programs
dealing with enhancement of the role of women. The State Ministry for the
Role of Women is responsible as the policy coordinator for all programs
related to women's affairs. The Five-Year Development Plan (1994-99) has
these five program areas for enhancing the status of women: education and
training for women; enhancing the role of women in improving family welfare;
increasing the status and role of women workers; development of a
sociocultural environment conducive to advancement of women; and
strengthening the mechanism for the advancement of women. The continuing lack
of awareness of gender issues and gender and development is directly linked
to the mostly male decision makers and planners whose discriminative attitude
must be changed. A case study on the education for girls and women in
Yogyakarta Special Territory is the second part of this report. (Contains 11
tables.)
(YLB)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS
BEEN GRANTED BY
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
..
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
JJ
n
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
(./4
CENTER (ERIC)
This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
GIRLS' AND WOMEN'S EDUCATION
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
0 Minor changes have been made to
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
improve reproduction quality.
in Indonesia
1
Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do not necessarily represent
official OERI position or policy.
A. National Study on Girls' and
Although there was a significant improvement in
Women's Education
the literacy rate and level of education of the working
population between 1980-1996 (Table 2, Attachment
A), there is still a big gap in the literacy rate and
level of education between males and females. As
I. Background
education is considered a strategic vehicle to empower
people to develop themselves, to improve their
Located in Southeast Asia, Indonesia consists of
quality of life, to function in their daily life and in
more than 17,000 islands and islets, 6,000 of which
community development, the educational discrep-
are inhabited. As the third most populous country
ancy between the male and female population should
among developing countries, after China and India,
be addressed specifically in national policies and
this country is a multi-ethnic nation with about 583
implementation mechanisms for girls' and women's
language and dialect groups. With a land mass of
education.
1,9 million sq.km., Indonesia is the fourth largest
country in the Asian region after China, Australia
Several efforts have been conducted to close the
and India. The average population density is slightly
educational gap between males and females.
over 100 persons per sq.km. However, there is wide
However, there are still hindrances deeply-rooted in
variation in population density, ranging from a few
the socio-cultural values and norms of Indonesian
people per sq.km. in Irian Jaya province, to nearly
society. Although there is no legislation which
1000 per sq.km. in densely populated provinces on
discriminates against women in Indonesia, including
Java. The inner islands of Java, Madura, Bali and
the matter of education, cultural traditions have
Lombok, although accounting for about seven per
militated against girls and women, particularly in
cent of total land area, accommodate about two-
rural areas.
thirds of the nation's population.
Since men are expected to be the bread-winners and
The population structure for females in 1996 consists
responsible for the public domain, and women are
of 33 per cent 0-14 years of age, 62.6 per cent in the
responsible for the domestic domain, the society rates
productive-aged category of 15-64 years old, and 4.4
boys and men higher than girls and women. This
per cent 65 years old and older (Table 1, Attachment
cultural norm makes parents skeptical about the
A). Over a period of 20 years, the population living
value of education for girls. Other factors reinforcing
below the poverty line was reduced from over 40 per
this norm include poverty and geographic isolation.
cent (54.2 million) in 1976 to 11.4 per cent (22.6
These cultural and socio-economic hindrances
million) by 1996. Of those living below the poverty
against girls' and women's education are reflected in
line, 8 million live in urban areas and 14.6 million
the female literacy rate (Table 2, Attachment A), the
in rural areas.
average female wage (Table 5, Attachment A), and in
enrollment, drop-out, attainment, and participation
Data presented in Table 1 (Attachment A) indicates
in formal education (Table 4,
rates of girls
that in 1996, 64 per cent of the Indonesian population
Attachment A).
and 64 per cent of the total female population live in
rural areas. As rural areas accommodate 64.6 per cent
of the population living below the poverty line, it is
II. General Policy on Equality
clear that the Ministry of Education and Culture
Between Men and Women
(MOEC) and other related institutions responsible
for formal and nonformal education should give
Development policies in Indonesia are based on the
highest priority to educate rural people.
principle of equality between men and women.
Article 27 of the 1945 Indonesian Constitution states
1
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
2
with Article 31 of the 1945 Constitution which
exception, all citizens shall
. without any
that .
.
stipulates that: 1) every citizen has the right to obtain
have equal status in law and government, and shall
education; and 2) the Government provides one
be obliged to uphold that law and government.
national education system that is supported by law.
as the state philosophy and the nation's
Pancasila
This provision appears in the GBHN and in Edu-
way of life, and the 1945 Constitution as the
cation Law No. 2/1989 which provide direction and
constitutional basis, have placed women in highest
guidelines for the implementation of the national
esteem and dignity. This equality principle is reflected
education system in the national development
in the inclusion of a special chapter on the role of
programme.
women in nation-building in the Broad Guidelines
of the State Policy (Garis-garis Besar Haluan Negara/
in Indonesia is operated
The educational
system
GBHN) of 1978 which has subsequently been adopted
through two channels: school education and out-of-
every five years by the People's Consultative
school education. The structure of the educational
Assembly.
system in Indonesia is presented in Figure
1
(Attachment A). The school educational levels are
The Government's political will and commitment
as follows: a) two years for kindergarten; b) six years
to the welfare of women was clearly institutionalized
for primary education; c) three years for lower
by the appointment of an Associate Minister for the
secondary school (LSS); d) three years for upper
Role of Women in 1978 who was elevated to State
secondary school (USS); e) four years for the first
Increasing the level of women's
Minister in 1983.
university degree; f) two years for the second
education and skills, and developing a socio-cultural
university degree; and g) two years for the third
climate more conducive to the advancement of
university degree. The programmes for out-of-school
women are two of five priority areas of the Office of
education are: a) day care centres; b) play groups; c)
the Ministry for the Role of Women. Further, the
B; d) income-generating
of the UN Convention on
Packet A and Packet
the
ratification
programmes and apprenticeships, and e) private
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
courses.
Women was enacted by Law No. 7 in July 1984. The
ratification of this Law resulted from the strong
The agencies primarily responsible for school
support by the State Minister of the Role of Women.
education in Indonesia are the Ministry of Education
and Culture (MOEC), the Ministry of Home Affairs
The strong commitment of the Indonesian govern-
Affairs. The
and the Ministry of Religious
ment to education comes from an interpretation of
educational levels in the ministries mentioned above
the 1945 Constitution which stipulates that one of
are similar due to the similarity of curricula. The
the State obligations is to develop the intellectual
only difference in curricula is the additional religious
life of the nation. The 1998 Broad Guidelines of the
discipline in the educational system under the
State Policy (GBHN) states that .
Women as
. .
Ministry of Religious Affairs. The organizational
citizens as well as human resources for national
structure of the Ministry of Education and Culture
duties and
rights,
development have equal
(MOEC) at the national and provincial levels is
opportunities like men in all fields of life of the
presented in Figure 2 (Attachment A). The organiz-
nation and in all development activities. Therefore,
ational structure of the MOEC is as follows:
women's position in the community and their role
in development should be improved and directed
a) At the central level, the MOEC consists of seven
towards enabling them to give the greatest possible
principal working units which are:
contribution to
the nation's development,
in
accordance with their destiny, dignity and their
Secretariat-General
In this respect, girls and boys should have
status.
Inspectorate-General
equal opportunities for education at all levels.
Agency for Educational and Cultural Research
and Development
Directorate-General for Basic and Secondary
III. Education System in
Education
Indonesia
Directorate-General for Higher Education
Directorate-General for Out-of-School Edu-
cation, Youth and Sport
The development of national education has been
given top priority in the Indonesian national
Directorate-General of Culture
development. This commitment is in accordance
2
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
3
not send their children to school, this educational
strategy resulted in a 93.5 per cent participation rate
b) At the lower level, the MOEC is represented by a
for children 7-12 years of age by 1994. Rates of intake,
Provincial Office of Education and Culture in
enrollment, drop-out, and completion in primary
each of the 27 provinces, and by a District Office
education are presented in Table 6 (Attachment A).
of Education and Culture in each of the 305
It is encouraging to note that gross enrollment ratios
districts in Indonesia.
at the primary level show a tendency for gender
The major task of the provincial and district
equity.
Education and Culture Offices is to operationalize,
manage, adapt, and implement ministerial policies
Based on the achievement attained in compulsory
on education and culture with respect to each of
primary education, the government implemented the
Education Law of 1989 for compulsory basic
their distinctive features of local and environmental
education including six years of primary school and
needs.
three years of lower secondary school. This nine-
year compulsory basic education was started in 1994
School Education System
III.1.
through a Presidential Decree and is considered to
be the minimum education for all Indonesian
According to the Law on National Education System
citizens. The expected impact of this nine-year
of 1989, the education system is organized via two
compulsory education upon girls is a prolongation
different channels, i.e. school education (formal
of girls' education to avoid early marriage. However,
education) and out-of-school (non-formal education).
data in Table 6 (Attachment A) show the high drop-
School education is organized in school through
out and repetition rates among female pupils at the
teaching and learning activities which are gradual,
primary school level.
Out-of-school
continuous.
hierarchical,
and
education is organized outside of formal schooling
Secondary Education
through teaching and learning activities which may
111.1.2.
or may not be hierarchical and continuous. It can
Secondary education covers three years and consists
be provided by government and non-government
institutions; however, out-of-school education is
of four categories: general, vocational, special and
religious education. In the period of 1980-1989, the
largely organized and run by communities. The legal
total gross enrollment rate (boys and girls) grew by
basis for out-of-school education is the Government
eight per cent, while that of girls grew by 11 per
Regulation No.73/1991.
cent. An increase in the girls' gross enrollment rate
from 36 to 45 per cent resulted in an encouraging
Primary Education
III.1.1.
reduction of the gender gap. Although this increase
is encouraging, disparities persist in the choice of
1973, the government launched a special
In
subjects for study.
programme through a Presidential Instruction on
Primary Education. This programme was provided a
111.2. Out-of-School Education
special budget allocated for: a) building new schools
b) renovating existing
System/Adult Education
throughout Indonesia;
schools; c) building additional classrooms; d)
recruiting and training teachers; e) building houses
The government regulation No.73/1991 on out-of-
for school principals and custodians; 0 providing
school regulation states that out-of-school education
library books; g) provision of textbooks and other
is aimed at: a) meeting the educational needs of the
community which cannot be met by the school
learning materials; h) providing science and math-
ematics practicum equipment; and i) subsidizing
education system; b) helping learners to develop
private schools.
themselves at their earliest age to uplift their standard
of living and their self-esteem; c) providing learners
Eleven years after the implementation of the
with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to
Presidential Instruction referred to above, the
develop themselves; d) providing knowledge and skills
government launched a compulsory initiative for
to get jobs and income; and e) preparing learners to
children of 7-12 years of age to attend primary
continue education at higher levels. In this respect,
schools. Even though compulsory education in
. every citizen
the 1945 constitution states that .
.
Indonesia offers no punishment for parents who do
3
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
4
Characteristics of out-of-school education pro-
has the right to attain education in order to have
grammes can be described as follows:
knowledge, capability and skills at least equal to
knowledge, capability and skills of basic education
Out-of-school programme activities are
im-
graduates.
plemented through learning groups.
There are four types of out-of-school education in
Each group consists of a maximum 40 learners
Indonesia:
tutors. The number of
tutors
assisted by
depends on the needs of each programme. The
a) literacy programmes;
selection and recruitment of tutors are conducted
b) basic education in the form of :
based on the criteria required by each programme.
All of the tutors receive honoraria in amounts
Packet A Programme which is equivalent to
decided by the local government.
primary school, and Packet B Programme which
is equivalent to lower secondary school;
The learning process is assisted by an institution
or an organization, with a programme manager
c) continuing education in the form of:
appointed from that institution/organization to
help organize the classes. Tutors and managers
private courses;
receive a monthly financial incentive. The
income-generating programmes, and
financial resources of the programmes may come
apprenticeship programmes
from the state income and expenditure budget,
The income-generating and apprenticeship
the provincial income and expenditure budget,
programmes are integrated into post-literacy and
grants or loans from abroad, or community self-
basic education programmes in order to motivate
financing.
learners to continue their study; and
The learning activity is held three times a week
d) Early childhood education in the form of play
depending on the consensus made by the learners,
groups and child-care centres.
are
tutors, manager, and organizer. The learners
assisted by their tutors in the learning process,
The agency responsible for the out-of-school
but they should also study by themselves or in
programmes is the Directorate of Community
small groups outside the class.
Education (Pendidikan Masyarakat/DIKMAS),
Directorate-General for Out-of-School Education,
The learning content is decided by learners in
Youth and Sports, which is responsible for developing
cooperation with the tutors, except for the core
the programmes mentioned above. All programmes
curriculum of basic education, which should
under the Directorate of Community Education are
follow the formal curriculum.
geared towards the objective of increasing the quality
The modular system is used for basic education.
of human resources. To carry out this function, the
are evaluated through a multiple-
The learners
Directorate of Community Education is divided into
choice test on each subject at the end of each
five subdirectorates and one administrative office as
semester to determine if they can move on to
follows:
the next set of modules. At the end of three years,
Subdirectorate of Women, in charge of all pro-
the Packet B learners write a test similar to the
grammes concerning women and girls.
one taken by formal lower secondary education
students. The achievement exams are nationally
Subdirectorate of Basic Education, in charge of
organized. Through this system, Packet A
basic education programmes.
graduates have the same quality as formal primary
Subdirectorate of Private Courses, in charge of
school graduates, and Packet B graduates possess
the same quality as the lower secondary education
private course programmes.
graduates. Packet A and Packet B graduates receive
Subdirectorate of Learning Materials and Training,
certificates with equal rights in both pursuing
in charge of learning materials development
further education and applying for jobs.
needed by all programmes under the Directorate
of Community Education.
Administrative Office, in charge of the adminis-
trative matters of all programmes.
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
4
5
111.2.2. Basic Education Programmes
111.2.1. Literacy Programmes
During the Second Long-Term National Develop-
In Indonesia, the number of illiterates among
ment Plan (SLTNDP), starting from the sixth
women is still very high despite many literacy
Five-Year National Development Plan (Repelita VI,
campaigns and literacy programmes conducted by
both the government and NGOs. This happens
1994/95-1998/99) to the tenth (Repelita X, 2014/15-
2018/19), more attention will be given to the
because many girls do not have access to primary
nine-year basic education programme. The emphasis
education or drop out from primary school. The
of this programme, however, is on enrolling all
socio-cultural system still considers women inferior
children belonging to the lower secondary level (13-
to men. These illiterate women tend to ignore health,
15 years of age). This is a universal programme that
nutrition and sanitation, thus contributing to the
high infant mortality rate and high maternal
started in the middle of 1994, and it is expected that
the programme will be completed by the end of
mortality. Therefore, educational programmes and
Repelita VII (1999/2000-2003/2004). There are three
training for women in Indonesia have focused on
reasons why primary school leavers do not continue
education, health and employment opportunities in
to lower secondary schools: a) the low economic
various fields in order to give women a greater role
status of their parents; b) the location of their school
and responsibility in national development. The
far from home; and c) the negative attitudes of their
beneficiaries of programmes specifically designed for
parents toward schooling.
girls and women should: a) be 10-44 years of age; b)
possess a low educational background; c) belong to
The use of new approaches to achieve full partici-
a low income group; and d) live at the grass-roots
pation in lower secondary education should be
level in either urban or rural areas.
implemented in order to encourage primary school
graduates to continue their education for three more
The number of illiterate people, including girls and
years, and to provide a new access for lower secondary
women, was greatly reduced after the implemen-
students who drop out of school. The following
tation of six-year compulsory education in 1984. The
approaches have been made: a) a social approach
implementation was quite successful due to the
providing adequate information to raise parental
provision of adequate funds derived from the increase
awareness of the benefits of education to improve
in the oil price.
b)
the current and future family level of well-being;
The Presidential Instruction in 1978 for the develop-
an economic approach providing fellowships through
ment of primary schools (mentioned previously)
the National Foster Parent Family (Gerakan Nasional
Orang Tua Asuh/GNOTA); and c) a cultural
resulted in a great decrease in the number of illiterates
in Indonesia. For example, during 1980-1990 the
approach providing a concrete model that shows the
most significant reduction among illiterates was in
benefits of education in real life. Since 1994, the
the age group of 10-44 years of age, who are the target
policy of out-of-school education has been empha-
group of the illiteracy eradication programme. The
sized in basic education through Packet A equivalent
number of illiterates decreased to 8.6 million in 1990,
to primary school and Packet B equivalent to lower
and 6.9 million in 1996. The programme, along with
secondary school.
the expansion of the conventional primary school
Packet A is an out-of-school education programme
system, has significantly narrowed gender disparity
equivalent to primary education. The idea of the
in the 10-44 years category. Data presented in Table
development of this packet is to help the primary
2 (Attachment A) indicate that the disparity in 1990
school drop-outs to gain access to a non-formal
was down to 5.4 per cent (the literacy rates were 89
education programme.
per cent and 94.5 per cent for females and males
respectively) when compared to 1980, when the
Packet B is an out-of-school education programme
disparity was 12.5 per cent (the female literacy rate
developed to meet the needs of community
was 74 per cent compared with 86 per cent for males).
members, especially to assist the drop-out students
The use of functional literacy and the involvement
who intend to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes
of the Armed Forces in the programme has added to
equivalent to lower secondary school graduates. The
its effectiveness.
objective of the programme is to support the nine-
year basic education through the out-of-school
education channel, in order that all children 13-15
5
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
6
There are almost 20,000 private course institutions/
years of age attain education equal to lower secondary
organizations offering over 100 different course
education level. Packet B students are not expected
programmes. The Directorate of Community
to continue their schooling after graduation, but if
they intend to do so, they can write the state
Education tries to improve these private courses in
order that learners can master the knowledge, skills,
equivalency examination and obtain a regular lower
secondary school
certificate.
Therefore,
and practical experience which is linked to the needs
the
of the real world. This strategy of link-and-match is
vocational component of Packet B is considered an
important part of the programme, to ensure that
implemented through the improvement of curricula
and learning materials, the teaching-learning process,
after graduation the students already possess some
training facilities and equipment, examination and
skills for employment or self-employment.
certification. At present, the focus of private course
Originally, Packet B was implemented to serve the
programmes is in these areas: computers, account-
school-age children 13-15 years old. However, at
ancy, hotel management, cooking, electronics,
present Packet B also serves those who are over 15
automotive mechanics, secretarial, beautician,
years old. The number of drop-outs from lower
clothing and textiles. However, most girls participate
secondary education is 400,000 persons per year, and
in sewing, cooking, secretarial, beautician, and
those who have finished primary education and do
clothing and textiles courses. It is very rare that girls
not continue to lower secondary education are
participate in electronics and automotive courses.
around one million youngsters per year, most of
whom are girls.
Training programmes targeting girls
Since 1994, the Directorate of Community Edu-
and women
cation has accommodated 123,000 learners to join
Packet B each year. The budget provided is about
The facilitators for training programmes targeting
US$25 per learner. The methods used are face-to-
girls and women are government personnel as well
face instruction, self-study and peer group work using
as NGOs, especially women NGOs. Women NGOs
a modular system consisting of 54 modules for each
in Indonesia are coordinated by the Indonesian
grade. The curriculum used was the 1994 formal
Women's Congress (Kongres Wanita Indonesia!
education curriculum consisting of the following nine
KOWANI) organizing its 50 members of national
subjects: mathematics, English, natural science,
women's organizations. The current programmes
social science, Indonesian language, civic education
intended for girls and women are as follows: a)
health, and
education,
physical
(Pancasila),
Training on Health Counseling; b) Training for Village
vocational skills according to the local context. There
Health Services; c) Gender Analysis Training; d)
are at least five to six tutors to help each class of
Training in Science and Technology; e) Training for
Packet B. One manager who is usually the organizer
Women Leaders; f) Training on Family Education;
is assigned to implement the teaching-learning
g) Establishment of Resource Centres for Women
activities with an honorarium of US$10. Each of the
Entrepreneurs; h) Training for Out-of-School Village
tutors is paid US $5 monthly. Most of the learning
Youths; and i) Training in Family Planning and
activities are conducted at the primary school
Family Welfare.
buildings, secondary school buildings or district
learning centres. The minimum allocated for learning
Training on Health Counseling
is three times a week for three hours per day.
In Indonesia maternal mortality is still very high,
around 11 per one thousand, and the infant mortality
Continuing Education
111.2.3.
rate is about 68 per one thousand. Women and
Programmes
children in particular are victims of bad living
conditions. One major effort is to enhance public
There are three types of continuing education
awareness of women's rights for reproductive health
b) income-
apprenticeships;
a)
programmes:
by imposing international laws and national
generating programmes; and c) private courses.
legislation on reproductive health. The follow-up
Apprenticeship and income-generating programmes
action is in the form of counseling activities on
are integrated into non formal basic education and
women's rights for reproductive health which are
post-literacy programmes. Private course programmes
linked with these programmes: a) women's repro-
are implemented by private training institutes/
ductive health and the reduction of maternal
organizations.
6
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
7
includes
income
training
mortality; b) women's education and maternal
The
community.
generating, leadership, and gender and development.
welfare; c) women's rights in the workplace; c)
Table 7 (Attachment A) shows the provinces and the
reproductive health in marriage; d) reproductive
number of women leaders trained in the period of
health in Indonesian culture; and e) a recent national
movement, Gerakan Sayang Ibu, which literally
1994-1998. Regarding training in income-generation,
the Directorate of Community Education conducted
means a Movement to Care for Mothers in order to
a week's training on small business development for
accelerate the reduction of the maternal mortality
poor women who are literate, the number of women
rate.
who have been trained up to 1998 is 13,930 (Table
7, Attachment A). The women who have completed
Training for Village Health Services
training are provided with a small amount of credit
to start a small business. Up to 1998, 803 groups of
The government has set up an Integrated Health
women have received credit (Table 7, Attachment
Services (Pos Pelayanan Terpadu/POS YANDU) at
A).
the village level for the purpose of providing
information on the importance of immunization, a
Training in Family Education
family nutrition improvement programme, infor-
mation on the importance of breast-feeding, and
The National Law on Education System of 1989
health services to mothers and children under five
(No.2, Article 10) states that family education is a
years of age.
part of out-of-school education. Family education is
direct the
a conscious educational effort to
Gender Analysis training
community through learning activities in the areas
of primary education, health, gender awareness and
The gender analysis (GA) training for trainers of
sensitivity, child rearing and skill development.
development project staff is intended to increase the
Family education consists of 23 modules that enable
role of women in various sectors of development.
a family to provide a better education for their children
The GA training material is designed to increase
values,
in the areas of religion, moral and cultural
the trainees' awareness of the important roles and
and income-generating education to improve their
contribution of women to household survival, and
quality of life. The training is organized by the
to enable trainees to analyze the position of men
Directorate of Community Education in cooperation
and women in the project location in order to identify
with women NGOs.
their specific potential and needs.
Establishment of Resource Centres for
Training in Science and Technology
Women Entrepreneurs
Most training in science and technology is intended
The establishment of resource centres for women
to help women farmers apply science and technology
entrepreneurs is intended to develop an educational
in their farming practices of planting, fertilizer
model for poor literate women who do not have
application, harvesting and marketing. Up to now
in small
incomes. These women are trained
995,416 women farmers have been trained. After
skills designed
business, marketing and enterprise
completing training, they are given access to a micro-
to raise incomes to improve their quality of life. The
credit scheme to start income-generating activities
centre is expected to help unemployed women in
in agriculture. The amount of credit can be increased
the neighbourhood.
according to the increase in their savings.
Training for Out-of-School Village Youths
'Draining for Women Leaders
The out-of-school training for girls and boys at the
In order to increase the status of women, the
village level is the responsibility of the Ministry of
Directorate of Community Education has trained
Social Affairs. Karang Taruna (Organization for Youth
1,280 village women leaders to become change agents
Welfare Development) is an out-of-school organiz-
in their respective villages. The training is designed
ation at the village level for youngsters 15-21 years
to increase knowledge, skills and attitudes in the
of age. Its objective is to develop the social and
area of leadership in order to increase the capability
occupational skills of village youths. The number of
to motivate women's participation in the village
7
Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
IV. Approach and Operational
organizations is the same as the number of villages
(66,000 organizations). The content of training
Strategies to Enhance
includes agriculture, fisheries, animal husbandry,
Roles of Women
agribusiness and income-generating.
IV.1. The Approach to Enhance Roles
Family Planning and Family Welfare
of Women
Training
A holistic approach is pursued in efforts to raise the
The Family Welfare Movement (Pembinaan Keluarga
status of women in various dimensions, among-
Sejahtera /PKK) is a movement run by members of
which are:
the community to promote the development of just
and prosperous families. The PKK is a nation-wide
Efforts to enhance the role of women in develop-
organization dealing with various family welfare
ment, both as agents and beneficiaries. The efforts
areas. The
and urban
rural
programmes
in
are directed not only to ensure equal oppor-
chairperson of the organization at the national level
tunities for women, but also to enable them to
is the wife of the Minister of Home Affairs, and at
take advantage of the available opportunities to
the village level the chairperson is the wife of the
benefits from
and acquire
participate
in
Village Chief. In cooperation with the National
development.
Family Planning Agency (Badan Koordinasi Keluarga
In line with the GBHN, efforts are directed at
Berencana NasionalIBKKBN), the PKK has been
enhancing the harmonious gender partnership
active in assisting the Family Planning Progamme
between women and men in the family and in
in Indonesia through the formation of family
society.
planning groups, motivating women to adopt the
family planning concept, and providing family
Due to the multi-dimensional nature of women's
fertile couples.
planning information for
issues, measures in social, cultural, economic
carried out in comp-
and political aspects are
The family planning programme is quite successful
lementary and mutually supporting ways.
in Indonesia, and could bring the birth rate down to
1.2 %. The PKK is also very active in assisting public
In short, the approach could be formulated as
health programmes, particularly in conducting
follows:
training for community cadres in the area of family
nutrition, providing additional feeding for children
Women in Development (WID) with programmes
under five years of age, and providing nutritious food
designed to specifically target women;
for pregnant mothers. In short, its programmes
Gender and Development (GAD) with pro-
include illiteracy eradication as a prerequisite to the
grammes designed for both men and women;
effort of increasing women's welfare and ensuring
that the community possesses knowledge concerning
In order to close the gender gap, the government
ten aspects of family welfare and practice them in
has launched a National Movement on the
are: a)
daily life. The ten aspects of family welfare
Harmonious Partnership Between Men and
the practice of Pancasila principles in daily life; b)
Women in Development. This movement is an
fostering the spirit of mutual assistance (gotong-
effort to increase the participation, involvement
royong); c) having adequate food; d) having adequate
and integration of women into the mainstream
clothing; e) having proper housing; f) having
of development programmes. Among other
education geared to employment; g) having good
things, it involves in-service training for decision
h) joining a cooperative movement;
i)
health;
makers and planners to increase their gender
practising good planning in daily life; and j)
awareness and sensitivity.
maintaining and improving the environment.
IV.2. Operational Strategies to
Enhance Roles of Women
Based on the approaches mentioned above, the
following operational strategies are formulated to
improve the status of women:
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Girls' and Women's Education in Indonesia
9
IV.4. Responsible Agencies and NGOs
To prepare, plan and implement government
for the Education and Training
policies pertaining to the enhancement of the role
of women in various fields of development;
of Women
To coordinate all activities dealing with the
Responsible agencies and NGOs for conducting
enhancement of the role of women to achieve
education and training for women are:
comprehensive, balanced and integrated efforts
in its overall implementation;
Ministry of Agriculture, for conducting empower-
ment programmes for women farmers through
To coordinate the operational activities of various
provision of training in agriculture and small
government institutions and agencies concerning
agribusiness development.
programmes on the enhancement of the role of
women in various fields of development;
Ministry of Industry and Trade, for providing skills
training in home industry and business manage-
To submit to the President reports, information
ment as well as marketing.
and recommendations on matters concerning the
enhancement of the role of women in develop-
Ministry of Education and Culture, for providing
ment; and
training in leadership and income-generating
programmes, reinforcement programmes for
To implement strategies and programmes to
women's literacy and numeracy.
enhance the status of women.
Ministry of Cooperatives, for providing skill
training in this area.
IV.3.1998 Broad Guidelines of the
State Policy on the Role of
Ministry of Social Affairs, for providing skill
Women
training in family and child welfare.
Indonesian Institute of Science and Technology,
The State Ministry for the Role of Women is the
for providing skill training in the improvement
coordinating ministry of all agencies and working
of the quality of products through the use of low
units of ministries and organizations involved in
cost but modern technology.
women's affairs. The ministry's plan of action is
Ministry of Manpower, for providing various
based on the Broad Guidelines of the State Policy
(GBHN) which provides guidance and direction for
vocational training and apprenticeships.
the formulation of each five-year development plan.
National Bureau of Planning (BAPPENAS), for
providing skill training for facilitators in villages
The 1998 Broad Guidelines of the State Policy on
and small business development training at
the role of women emphasize:
subdistrict level.
Equal rights, obligations, and opportunities for
NGOs such as trade unions, APINDO, KOWANI
women and men in all aspects of civic life and in
(Indonesian Women's Congress), SPSI (Labour
all development activities;
Association), Bina Swadaya, Bangun Mitra Sejati,
Women's harmonious role in the family and
for various skills training for women based on
existing needs such as training of trainers, new
society;
business opportunities, and recently unemployed
Respect for women's dignity, and protection of
women due to the monetary crisis, through short-
women's specific biological characteristics/
term training in collaboration with the national/
reproductive function;
local government or through collaboration with
A favorable socio-cultural climate for the wider
donor agencies.
participation of women in development; and
The participation of NGOs such as the Family
Welfare Movement/PICK and KOWANI.
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