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ERIC ED463871: Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Maternal Employment during Early Childhood and the Elementary School Years. PDF

15 Pages·2002·0.25 MB·English
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DOCUMENT RESUME PS 030 287 ED 463 871 Gambone, Kirsten; Gelband, Amy; Farrell, Debi; Black, Aimee; AUTHOR Szuchyt, Jamie; Aivazian, Casey; Lang, Allison; Nyce, Susan; Johnson, Lisa; Thomas, Amy; Arena, Jordan; Weiner, Stacie; Zohe, Dorothoy; Cane, Susan; Chambliss, Catherine Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Maternal Employment TITLE during Early Childhood and the Elementary School Years. 2002-00-00 PUB DATE NOTE 13p. Research (143) Reports PUB TYPE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. EDRS PRICE *Childhood Attitudes; College Students; Comparative DESCRIPTORS Analysis; *Employed Parents; Higher Education; *Mothers; Preschool Children; Sex Differences; *Young Adults Research Replication IDENTIFIERS ABSTRACT Noting the lack of research into the effects of maternal employment on the cognitions of a young adult sample, this study examined the relationship between maternal employment and college students' beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment and their own plans for future workplace involvement. Participating in the study were 635 undergraduate college students. Subjects completed a packet of questionnaires, including the Beliefs about the Consequences of Maternal Employment for Children (BACMEC) Scale, and the Childhood Appraisal Scale designed to measure their perception of the consequences of their mother's work status; subjects also reported their mother's employment at each stage of their own development. Subjects were divided into two groups (early unemployed versus early employed) on the basis of maternal work status during their early childhood. Findings indicated that when males and females were assessed jointly, early maternal employment was significantly associated with perceptions of both the benefits and costs associated with maternal employment during their early childhood. Those whose mothers worked perceived greater benefits and fewer costs than those whose mothers had not worked during their early childhood. Males perceived fewer benefits and greater costs than females of maternal employment. (Contains 17 references.) (KB) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Maternal Employment during Early Childhood and the Elementary School Years Kirsten Gambone, Amy Gelband, Debi Farrell, Aimee Black, Jamie Szuchyt, Casey Aivazian, Alison Lang, Susan Nyce, Lisa Johnson, Amy Thomas, Jordan Arena, Stacie Weiner, Dorothoy Zohe, Susan Cane, and Catherine Chambliss U.S, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES PERMISSION TO INFORMATION REPRODUCE AND CENTER (ERIC) 1/his DISSEMINATE THIS c4is MATERIAL HAS document has been reproduced BEEN GRANTED as BY received from the person or organization originating it. C 0 Minor changes have been made to . improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in this TO THE EDUCATIONAL document do not necessarily represent RESOURCES official OERI position or policy. INFORMATION CENTER 1 (ERIC) AVAIIALE T OOPY .. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS Kirsten Gambone, Amy Gelband, Debi Farrell, Aimee Black, Jamie Szuchyt, Casey Aivazian, Alison Lang, Susan Nyce, Lisa Johnson, Amy Thomas, Jordan Arena, Stacie Weiner, Dorothoy Zohe, Susan Cane, Catherine Chambliss, Ph.D. Ursinus College 2002 Abstract This study assessed the attitudes of both male and female undergraduate college students' regarding maternal employment, in an effort to replicate earlier research showing a disparity between young men's and women's perceptions of the consequences of maternal employment. Perceptions of both the benefits and costs associated with maternal employment were assessed via administration of the BACMEC (Greenberger et al., 1988). Scores on the two BACMEC subscales were calculated for each subject. Between groups t-tests showed a significant effect on both the cost and benefit subscales; males perceived fewer benefits and greater costs than females. When males and females were assessed jointly, early maternal employment was significantly associated with perceptions of both the benefits and costs associated with maternal employment during their early childhood. 3 2. Introduction The needs of children at particular developmental stages are perceived differently training begins fairly early in the U.S., across cultures. For example, while independence Japanese youngsters are permitted to be extremely reliant upon their mothers even well into the elementary school years. Similarly, such attitudes have shifted considerably over time, within particular cultures. These perceptions of children's developmental capacities help to shape beliefs about optimal care arrangements, and attitudes toward such things as maternal employment. Parents' beliefs about their children's needs, and whether they can adequately met in a nontraditional family with an employed mother, can have a dramatic influence on whether this type of family will function well for them. Mothers who feel that maternal employment exacts a huge toll on children will be burdened by guilt if they work outside the home when their children are young. Fathers with such attitudes may be critical of wives who are employed, and may undermine their confidence as mothers. Mothers who of thriving with an employed mother may resent see children as very resilient and capable husbands who expect them to surrender their workplace connections after the birth of children. Couples characterized by congruent attitudes toward maternal employment can facilitate the functioning of both traditional, sole-breadwinner and nontraditional, two- paycheck families. Young children are presumably more likely to prosper within families in which parents agree about the children's needs, and about how the family's economic responsibilities should be shared. For this reason, it is important to explore the extent to which men and women share similar attitudes about the needs of young children, and the degree to which their feelings about the impact of maternalemployment are congruent. Traditional gender roles typically divide career and household responsibilities unevenly between partners (Xaio, 2000). Until recently, men were expected to be the primary source of income for the family and women were expected to manage all things domestic. This concept of separate distinct roles is no longer the norm for most families today. Furthermore, gender and family roles are still evolving from the traditional gender roles of yesterday. Only in the last ten years have we begun to see the children of non- choices as they reach young adulthood. Interestingly, the traditional families make their choices made by this generation are varied within gender, age, background and social class. In an effort to understand how they fit into today's changing world, partners often stop to evaluate the fairness of their choices. Egalitarian women more often compared their contributions to their partner rather than the women that came before them (Buunk of hours et al, 2000). Women were most satisfied in their relationships when the amount agreed. spent performing domestic duties by their partner turned out to be what was Interestingly, men were most satisfied when their wives did less housework and set aside increased time for activities pertaining to the relationship (Stevens, Kiger & Riley, 2001). Ironically, marriage itself tends to promote dependence and hinder the success egalitarian practices. Moreover, this pattern (of promoting marital dependence) is most negative to the outcome of success for women as well as and marital satisfaction (Baxter & Kane, 1995). 4 3 hidden Further complicating attitudes towards working women are the often be problems associated with childcare. The debate over quality childcare continues to childcare are defended vigorously from both sides. The majority of studies surrounding that are able to often misleading as well as being inconclusive. Many of the studies shared with the public because publish 'statistically significant' positive results are never 'statistically significant' often the results are insignificant in real-world terms. However, unbelievable. Such negative results are quickly portrayed by the media as unexpected and longer know sensational news surely shapes the attitudes of listeners causing many to no childcare must continue to be a focus what to believe, and what not to believe. In the end, Understanding of all family studies due to the major importance of non-parental care. will continue to challenge why partners make the career or family sacrifices they do researchers in our constantly changing society. Although there continues to be divisions within household labor and gaps in that for the most part the traditional roles wages between men and women, it is obvious that attitudes tend to be shifting away from traditional no longer apply. Zuo (2000) found employment, gender ideologies. Most men in this sample were supportive of their wives In the however, their gender ideologies remained more conventional than egalitarian. equal future we may find "policies that promote women's independence, encourage between opportunity, pay equity, gender-neutral parental leave, and a more equal balance women" home and work, will help foster more egalitarian attitudes for both men and have been (Baxter & Kane, 1995). Models of success that support pay equity for females reduced or unequal pay and gender discrimination seen in Scandinavian countries where recognize have been decreased or eliminated through comprehensive family policies that options, and value the differences between genders. Such policies govern parental leave benefits the childcare subsidies, flexible working hours, and compensation for work that community (which may not normally fall under the definition of paid work) such as change community childcare (Baxter & Kane, 1995). Large-scale attitude and behavior both had will require changes in how children are socialized. Perhaps if men and women parental leave policies, the traditional gender access to flexible work hours and greater roles would be less necessary and less supported (Baxter, 2000). the Recent Census Bureau statistics indicate that the double income family is now children (including those under one year of average, even among families with young with school age age). In fact, the rate of maternal employment for two-parent families 1989). In children is at least 71%, and this figure continues to rise each year (Hoffman, maternal light of this, much research has been done to investigate the effects of employment on infants, children, and adolescents. future In making career decisions, many mothers continue to worry about the workplace when their children are still consequences of their choice to return to the empirical studies of adult children's perceptions of young. To date, there have been few known about the short- the impact of their mother's employment status. Although much is studies of young children), there term consequences of maternal employment (based on adolescent samples and even fewer using adult are relatively few investigations using 5 review the available literature, and present subjects. In this current study we hope to of the effects of maternal work status on research findings on college students' views their lives and their career and family plans. maternal employment is There has been considerable debate over whether the years many researchers have postulated beneficial or detrimental for children. Over and self-esteem repercussions of global negative, cognitive, academic, emotional decades of work has failed to affirm the maternal employment. To date, nearly four children of employed women. Most studies majority of pessimistic predictions about the children grouped on the basis of maternal work have found very few differences between status (Hoffman, 1989). struggle found in the typical double Many have suggested that much of the the next generation become parents income home will disappear when members of in this "nontraditional" family. According to because so many themselves were reared been a child in a "traditional" family (where this argument, it is the incongruity of having while living out one's adult life in a "nontraditional" the father is the sole employed adult) fuels the pandemic conflict, guilt, and family (where both parents are employed) that '90s. anxiety that beset double income families of the mother could certainly affect Having childhood experiences with an employed of maternal employment and affect one's own one's perceptions about the appropriateness employed mother will prepare future lifestyle choices and adjustment. Perhaps having an effectively with the husbands with an outlook that will enable them to cope more household. demands of being a father in a two-paycheck mother may have an even greater The experience of being reared by an employed mothers have been shown to be more impact on daughters. Daughters of employed and Chambliss, 1989; Brogan and Kutner, egalitarian in their sex role attitudes (Knoblach 1986). Daughters of employed women tend 1976; Meier, 1972; Gardner and LeBreque, ambitious (Almquist and Angrist, 1971) and more to be more careers oriented, more In a summary of the literature Hoffman often tend to go to college (Hoffman, 1974). ideologies held by women of employed mothers, were notes that the most egalitarian (Hoffman, 1974). those whose mothers held high status jobs of their parents, (Knaub, 1986), In a study regarding children's perceptions families were surveyed as to their adolescent and young adult children of dual-career strength, and views on various issues satisfaction with this lifestyle, perceptions of family children rated their families relatively high related to the dual-career lifestyle. In general, subjects strengths such as concern, respect, and support. The on perceptions of family security and the opportunity to develop mentioned having positive role models, financial dual-career family. The subjects independence as possible benefits from growing up in a primary problems they had with both of their also indicated that time constraints were the children were highly supportive of their parents' double parents working. However, these employment that they thought the benefits of maternal career lifestyle and they indicated outweighed the disadvantages. 5- and Carr (1991) A study of college student attitudes by Chambliss, Owens, When compared with provided no support for "working mother" guilt and anxiety. from two-paycheck families students from families with unemployed mothers, students tendency to blame did not report greater family discord. They also showed no greater intellectual, or their mothers for childhood or current problems (social, esteem, worked fulltime most, mothers who academic). Students reported admiring mothers who worked part-time next, and unemployed mothers least. The only consistently perceived "casualties" of maternal employment were marriage. Many students whose perceptions of the mother's happiness and quality of her infancy or preschool years reported mothers were employed fulltime during the subjects' and their marriages "would have the belief that their mothers "would have been happier" However, it is important to been better" had their mothers' work status been different. with fulltime employed mothers did not note that even here, the majority of students mothers' happiness or perceive maternal work status as having compromised either marriage quality. understanding of the The present study was performed in order to gain a better beliefs about the relationship between maternal employment and college students' and their own plans for future workplace consequences of maternal employment effects of maternal involvement. While many previous studies have investigated the cognitions of a young employment, this is one of the first to assess the impact on the adult sample. Method Sub'ects: sample consisted The subjects used in this study were 635 college students. The psychology course at of 230 men and 405 women who were enrolled in an introductory from 18 to 28 years old. Ursinus College in Pennsylvania. The subjects ranged in age Procedure: introductory The packet used in this study was handed out to subjects in the asked to fill out the packet psychology class in which they were enrolled. Subjects were questionnaire in full. in its entirety with ample time given to fill out the information and to In part one, subjects were asked to provide demographic and family expectations. These questions answer questions concerning their career about family required subjects to disclose information concerning their expectations based on the age of their plans, job type, job characteristics, and work preference questions concerning their attitudes toward youngest child. Subjects were also asked 10 7 subjects to indicate their degree of their mother and father. These questions required Likert scale. agreement with each statement on a 4 point (Greenberger Part two of the packet was made up of the BACMEC questionnaire scale developed to measure Beliefs About the et al., 1988). The BACMEC is a 24-item included beliefs Consequences of Maternal Employment for Children. The BACMEC of five samples (n=375) have about both benefits (13 items) and costs (11 items). Studies highly reliable and demonstrated that the total BACMEC scale along with subscales are (Greenberger et al. 1988). have good convergent, divergent, and concurrent validity information about their In part three of the packet, subjects were asked to disclose development were mother's work status at each stage of development. The stages of old), childhood (6 to 12 years infancy (birth to 1 1/2 years old), preschool (2 to 5 years asked to report whether old), and adolescence (13 to 18 years old). The subjects were outside the home their mothers were employed part-time, fulltime, or not employed information about their during each stage of development. Subjects also disclosed collar, or blue- collar mother's position indicating whether it was professional, white they had been raised in a single work. Subjects were also asked to indicate whether or not parent household. Part four of the packet consisted of the CAS, the Childhood Appraisal Scale designed to (Chambliss, Owens, & Carr 1991). The CAS is an 18-item questionnaire of their mother's work status. The measure the subject's perception of the consequences how strongly subjects were asked to rate each item on a scale from 1 to 4 depending on subjects to they agreed or disagreed with each statement. The statements permitted work status had indicate if they felt their lives would have been different if their mother's of the perceived been different when they were growing up. This allowed an assessment impact of fulltime and part-time maternal employment, as well as unemployment. Results employed) Subjects were divided into two groups (early unemployed versus early during their early childhood (birth to 5 years old). on the basis of maternal work status (late Subjects were similarly grouped on the basis of maternal employment through 18 years unemployment versus late employment) during their later childhood (6 employment. Subjects old). Maternal employment included both fulltime and part-time below. from single parent households were excluded from the analyses described Scores on the two BACMEC subscales ("benefits" and "costs" of maternal adjusted item employment) were calculated for each subject by adding the directionally benefits values. Between groups t-tests revealed a significant sex effect on both the 05)(see table 2) (t=3.50, df=635, p<. 05) (see table 1) and costs (t=3.23, df=635, p<. When males subscales; males perceived fewer benefits and greater costs than females. significantly and females were assessed jointly, early maternal employment was with maternal associated with perceptions of both the benefits and costs associated fewer costs employment; those whose mothers worked perceived greater benefits and 8 7 worked during their early childhood. The results than those whose own mothers had not previously by Gambone, Rowles, Szuchyt, Dietrick, of his study affirmed those obtained Chambliss, 2002. Gelband, Lu, Zohe, Stickney, Fields, & Table 1 Benefit subset score of the BACMEC: Mean s.d. n 226 10.84 50.58 Males: 400 11.13 50.58 Females: Table 2 Cost subset score of BACMEC: N S.D. Mean 226 10.80 34.93 Males: 400 10.76 32.04 Females: Discussion While it is only starting to Historically, females were expected to have children. couple, many women are choosing to wait become socially acceptable to be a childless deciding not to have children until later to have children in order to pursue a career, or are at all. maternal employment. Males and females have very different views on and fewer benefits associated with Specifically, college men feel that there are more costs These inconsistent views between men maternal employment than do college women. further exemplified by the men's and women about maternal employment are compared to the women's plans about their expectations of their spouse's employment as in the Cost and Benefit category, which was future employment. The gender differences attributed to the growing number of calculated using the BACMEC method, may be both a career and children simultaneously. These women may women who desire to have employment, then a man who still feels have approved more of their mothers' maternal children. that a woman should not work, and raise the 9 their Initially, men and women tend to agree that mothers should stay home with that they infants. Most of the men expect their wives to do this and many women report for the rest of the do not plan to work at that stage of their children's lives. However, their wives child's life, there are differences between the percentage of men who expect be working. Many more men expect to work and the percentage of women who expect to believe that they that their wives will be staying at home to raise children, while women find it will employed outside the home. It is important to note that both men and women - be working at least part-time as their children get older. more acceptable for mothers to who prefer The older the children, the smaller the percentages of both men and women of their mothers the mother to stay at home. Males and females tend to view the roles home may feel quite differently. Women who had mothers who did not work outside the should have held a job that their mothers were "held back" while raising the children and who worked exclusively in the home may have viewed as well. Men who had mothers than what having a stay-at- them negatively. The males may have wanted more freedom home mother afforded them. For both male and female college students, there are differences in attitudes mothers were employed towards maternal employment based on whether or not their own there during their early childhood. When assessed together, men and women felt that if their mothers had been employed during early were fewer costs and more benefits worked childhood. There were additional differences between subjects whose mothers separately. and subjects whose mothers did not when males and females were looked at Men whose mothers worked outside the home during their early childhood were during their children's infancy. These men more likely to prefer that their wives work than men whose mothers did not work were more receptive to maternal employment with outside the home. This may be due to the fact that they had a positive experience maternal employment and positive personal outcomes. There is no difference between did not in their preference for spousal men whose mothers worked and those who employment during the preschool and elementary school years. However, there is a surprising shift in attitude during adolescence. Men with mothers who did not work during early childhood were more likely to prefer that their spouse work during adolescence than men whose mothers did work. Perhaps men whose mothers worked be during early childhood continued to work for their entire childhood and could not adolescence there for support during adolescence. These men may have had a difficult mothers' for this or other reasons and perhaps are blaming this difficulty on their prefer that employment. Despite thiis contradictory finding, more men from both groups their wives become employed, as the children get older. There are also differences between women whose mothers worked during early childhood and those subjects whose mothers did not. Women whose mothers were employed during their early childhood were more likely to prefer to work during their children's preschool, elementary, and adolescent years. As was true for the men, the gaps between the two groups of women got smaller as children got older and more women from both groups preferred to work outside the home by the time their children were adolescents. An interesting finding was that there was not a difference between the two 1 0

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