ERIC ED449910: Ready To Succeed: The Lasting Effects of Early Relationships. An Ounce of Prevention Fund and ZERO TO THREE Paper.

8 Pages·1998·0.25 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 449 910
PS 029 207
Hawley, Theresa
AUTHOR
TITLE
Ready To Succeed: The Lasting Effects of Early
Relationships. An Ounce of Prevention Fund and ZERO TO THREE
Paper.
INSTITUTION
Ounce of Prevention Fund.; Zero to Three: National Center
for Infants, Toddlers and Families, Washington, DC.
PUB DATE 1998-00-00
NOTE
7p.; "Provided through an educational grant from Johnson &
Johnson Consumer Companies, Inc."
AVAILABLE FROM
Ounce of Prevention Fund, 122 South Michigan Avenue, Suite
2050, Chicago, IL 60603-6198; Tel: [phone]; Fax:
312-922-3337.
Opinion Papers (120)
PUB TYPE
Reports
Descriptive (141)
EDRS PRICE
MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
At Risk Persons; Attachment Behavior; Brain; *Caregiver
Child Relationship; *Early Experience; Early Intervention;
*Emotional Development; *Infants; *Parent Child
Relationship; Young Children
IDENTIFIERS
*Adult Child Relationship; Brain Development; Security of
Attachment
ABSTRACT
Based on the view that emotional competence is an important
contributor to an individual's success, this report focuses on the critical
importance of early relationships with important adults, especially parents,
on an individual's level of emotional competence. The report maintains that
early interactions between parent and infant affect the child's psychological
and neurological development, influencing the young child's learning
readiness and also the adolescent's ability to succeed in other areas of
life. The origins of trust are illustrated in descriptions of two infants and
the different caregiving style of their parents. Evidence is presented from
the Mother-Child Study that children not receiving sensitive, responsive care
in the first few years of life were at significantly higher risk for a
variety of poor developmental outcomes. Other topics discussed in the report
are the impact of early relationships on brain development, factors placing
parents at risk for providing care that does not facilitate their child's
healthy emotional development, other influences on children's emotional
development, characteristics of child care necessary for promoting healthy
emotional development, and the relation between emotion and learning
readiness. The report concludes with a description of promising approaches to
meeting the emotional needs of young children, including pediatric health
care providers sharing with parents information about children's emotional
needs, community-based parent support programs, ensuring that child care is
of high quality, counseling and infant mental health services, and educating
child welfare workers and others who make child custody decisions about the
importance of long-lasting, warm relationships. (Contains 17 reference
notes.)
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H
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The Lasting
Effects of Early
Relationships
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
XThis document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
D Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do It necessarily represent
official OERI position or policy.
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS
BEEN GRANTED BY
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
1
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Provided through an educational grant from Johnson & Johnson Consumer Companies, Inc.
enry is a 16-year-old
In this time of distressingly high rates
have discov-
ment. But researchers
of school dropout, teen pregnancy,
ered that a youth's history of relation-
high school junior. He
and violence among youth, and equal-
ships with important adults,
ly alarmingly low levels of prepared-
especially parents, has the greatest
works hard in school,
ness for the workplace among young
influence on his or her emotional
gets good grades, and is
adults, much attention has been paid
competence and ability to succeed.
to the question of what determines
Furthermore, although parent-child
on the student council.
the success or failure of teenagers like
relationships continue to be impor-
Henry and Joe. Certainly many com-
tant across all stages of development,
Teachers report that Henry is a
munity-level factors play a role,
research shows that parent-child
"good kid," one who rarely
including the quality of the school
interactions in the first years have an
system and the economic health of
amazingly strong and life-long influ-
gets into trouble and who gets
the community. However, these fac-
ence on children's emotional develop-
along well with his peers. He
tors cannot explain the differential
ment. These early interactions
success of teens within a given com-
between parent and baby profoundly
has a part-time job working in
munity. What makes the difference
affect the child's psychological and
between Henry and Joe?
neurological development, impacting
an auto parts store, and hopes
not only the young child's readiness
to attend a junior college in a
to succeed in school but also the ado-
lescent's ability to succeed in other
few years so that he can train
Emotional Competence:
areas of life.
to be an auto mechanic.
The Foundation of Success
Many characteristics of an individual
The Origins of Trust
Joe, Henry's neighbor, is also
contribute to his or her success or
It's 5 a.m., and 3-month-old Anne is
failure, including intelligence and
16 years old. After years of
crying loudly to let her parents know
physical abilities. But scientists are
struggling with academic
that she is ready for breakfast. Her
discovering that one of the most
father, exhausted from months of
important determinants of success
work, and after being
interrupted sleep, grudgingly pulls
in adolescence and adulthood is an
himself out of bed and goes to Anne's
suspended twice last year for
individual's level of emotional compe-
crib. He tenderly picks her up, say-
tence: his or her level of persistence
fighting with other students, he
ing "Hello, my mixed-up little angel.
and self-motivation, ability to cope
Don't you know it's still the middle of
with stress and manage strong feel-
has dropped out of school. He
the night?" He cuddles and sings to
ings, and ability to empathize with
has had a string of low-paying
Anne while he warms a bottle, and
and relate to others. "Emotionally
then father and baby both start to
smart" teens are able to focus on the
jobs, but never keeps one for
doze while he holds and feeds her
task at hand in school or at work, can
in the rocking chair.
get along with peers and adults, are
more than a few weeks. Joe
able to delay gratification, and can
has been arrested for shoplift-
Down the street, 3-month-old Carrie
"bounce back" quickly after stressful
is crying, too. Her exhausted parents
experiences. In short, they are well-
ing and vandalism, and has
try to ignore the crying, but soon
prepared to weather the social and
Carrie is frantically wailing. Her
been on probation for the last
emotional storms of adolescence,
mother pulls herself out of bed and
and to succeed in school, work, and
year. Like Henry, he is interest-
gets a bottle from the refrigerator.
personal relationships.
She stands by the side of the crib
The question then becomes:
ed in becoming an auto
and tries to push the cold bottle
What determines an individual's level
mechanic, but he has no plans
into Carrie's mouth, but the baby
of emotional competence? Again, it is
is thrashing about and can't calm
the result of many forces, both genet-
to get the college or trade
down enough to start eating. "Fine,
ic and environmental. For example,
don't eat then," her mother says in
neurological impairments and trau-
school training he would need
frustration, throwing the bottle into
matic experiences can dramatically
to begin his career.
the crib. She returns to bed, leaving
affect children's emotional develop-
Carrie crying, hungry and alone.
The Ounce of Prevention Fund was established in 1982 as a public/private partnership to promote the well-being of children and adolescents by working with families,
communities, and policy-makers. ZERO TO THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers and Families was established in 1977 to advance the healthy development of
America's infants, toddlers and families. This paper has benefited from the work of several scientific researchers and other experts, including Byron Egeland and the
following members of the ZERO TO THREE Board: Robert N. Emde, Stanley I. Greenspan, Irving B. Harris, Alicia F. Lieberman and Bernice Weissbourd. The design,
printing and dissemination of this publication has been made possible through an educational grant from Johnson and Johnson Consumer Companies, Inc.
needs to otheis. In a
Anne and Carrie are learning a great
very tangible way, she
deal about themselves and the world
feels that she is val-
as a result of these interactions with
ued and worthy of
their parents. When Anne's parents
others' loving care.
regularly and sensitively respond to
She learns that the
her distress by providing comfort and
adults in her life are
meeting her needs. she learns that
trustworthy, and can
she can effectively communicate her
be counted on to
help her if she is
frustrated or
Early Relationships and Later
distressed. Because
she is forming a
Development Among At-Risk Children
positive image of
herself and of oth-
Byron Ege land and Alan Sroufe of the
ers right from the
University of Minnesota have
start. Anne is likely
amassed a tremendous amount of
to display the con-
evidence regarding the importance of
fidence, self-con-
early relationships for the development
trol, and ability to
of children in poverty. Their Mother-Child
relate to others that
Study, launched in 1975, has followed
or ignore any evidence that does
are necessary to succeed when she
176 children for 19 years from the pre-
not fit with her established view.
enters school. Assuming her emotion-
natal period to adulthood. The majority
Furthermore, the child is likely to
al needs continue to be met and she
of the children's mothers were single,
elicit behavior from adults and others
continues to develop a warm, trusting
almost half had less than a high school
that confirm her expectations. For
relationship with her parents, she is
education, and many were teens when
example, a preschool-aged child who
likely to become a successful adoles-
their children were born.
has come to expect that adults will
cent, one who achieves in school and
They foiind that children who had
rarely respond to her is likely to
at work and who is able to avoid risky
not received sensitive, responsive care in
make excessive demands for the
behaviors.
the first few years of life were at signifi-
teacher's attention. The teacher will
Carrie, on the other hand, is
cantly higher risk for a wide range of
be forced to ignore at least some of
forming a very different image of her-
poor developmental outcomes. For
the child's overtures, thus confirming
self and of others. When her bids for
example, children who had received less
the child's expectation that the
attention are ignored or are met with
sensitive care:
teacher would not consistently
harsh reproaches and rough handling,
had more difficulty forming relation-
respond to her.' In this way, the pic-
she is learning to be wary and
ships with peers in preschool and
tures of self and others that children
distrustful of others. Without more
early adolescence;
form during their earliest years
positive experiences, she is likely to
become self-perpetuating. Although
see herself as an ineffective communi-
had lower levels of school achieve-
change is possible throughout child-
cator or. even more unfortunate, as
ment, especially in adolescence;
hood and even in adulthood, negative
someone who is unworthy of warm,
were more likely to require special
images become increasingly difficult
responsive attention from adults. As a
education (72% in special education
to change the longer the child has
result, Carrie is likely to lack confi-
by 3rd grade);
received insensitive, unresponsive
dence and to have difficulty getting
care.
along with others when she enters
exhibited more behavioral
Fortunately, the positive views
school. Research shows that her very
problems; and
of self and others that children form
early experiences place her at high
were more likely to use drugs and
in infancy are also resistant to
risk for academic failure and social
alcohol during adolescence.
change. Sensitive, responsive care
and behavioral problems as she
in infancy and early childhood can
reaches adolescence.'
The researchers note that both
act as a buffer against negative expe-
These images and expectations
improvements and declines in healthy
riences later in life. For example,
of self and caregiver that form during
functioning occurred for children at all
children who are physically abused in
infancy have such a dramatic influ-
ages in their study. However, children who
later childhood are less likely to suffer
ence on later development because,
had an early history of secure relationships
severe negative consequences if they
once formed, they are increasingly
not only were less vulnerable to environ-
have received consistent, responsive
resistant to change. The child's views
mental threats than those who had poorer
care during infancy.' Thus, the first
of herself and of others become the
early relationships, but were also more
years of life provide a unique
lens through which she sees and
likely to benefit when socio-economic con-
opportunity to influence a child's
interprets all new social interactions,
ditions impacting their lives improved.
life course.
and like an over-zealous scientist
defending her theory, she will distort
1 I I MN El I I I
I
I I II IV 1111 111 I MI
meaningful relationships with adults
Biological Evidence*
as infants, have chronically overacti-
Fostering Healthy Emotional
vated stress response systems.' Their
of the importance
brains keep their bodies in a constant
Development in Child Care
state of "high alert," leaving the chil-
Aapproximately 6 million babies and
dren at risk for a host of medical and
of Early Relationships
toddlers are in child care in the U.S,"
learning problems as they grow.
Early parent-child relationships affect
nd that number is likely to increase
Similarly, research with home-reared
more than just the child's emerging
as a result of welfare reform. Research
American children has shown that
sense of self. There is growing biologi-
shows that, especially for vulnerable chil-
children who receive less responsive
cal evidence that infants need sensi-
dren and families, the quality of care that
care from their parents are likely to
tive, responsive care in order for the
an infant receives is critically important
remain highly physiologically reactive
parts of their brains that control emo-
for the child's development.th But there is
to even mild stress.' This hyper-reac-
tions to develop properly. At birth, a
a wide range of quality in infant child
tivity suggests that the children are
baby has only limited abilities to reg-
care in the U.S., and more than 80% is
not developing the ability to effective-
ulate her own emotions; she depends
thought to not be of high quality.'6 An
ly cope with stress.
upon her caregivers to help her calm
alarmingly high proportion of babies are
Some of the most dramatic evi-
down when upset and to keep her
in fact receiving care that can jeopardize
dence of how a lack of sensitive,
from getting overstimulated when
their emotional development. To promote
responsive care can affect the devel-
playing. When the caregiver effective-
healthy emotional (and cognitive) devel-
oping brain comes from work with
ly manages the baby's emotional
opment, infant child care should have the
children of chronically depressed
states, the baby develops the neuro-
following characteristics:"
mothers. It has been well documented
logical and emotional foundations
that mothers suffering from untreated
Warm, sensitive caregivers who are
that allow her to gradually learn how
depression often fail to respond to
trained in infant development, who
to regulate her emotions on her own.
their infants' cries and bids for atten-
understand the importance of
One example of how early emo-
tion and show little positive emotion
children's early relationships, and who
tional experiences affect brain devel-
when interacting with their babies.
are able to form effective partnerships
opment comes from research on the
Researchers have discovered aberrant
with parents;
brain's ability to respond appropriate-
patterns of brain activity in these
ly to stressful experiences. Children
Low staff turnover, to ensure continu-
children: their electroencephalogram
living in overcrowded Romanian
ity in caregiving for children;
(EEG) patterns resemble those of
orphanages, where they have had
depressed adults.' It appears that
Small groups of 6-8 infants or 8-10
little opportunity to form
these infants' experiences with
toddlers;
their mothers have led their
Low child-to-teacher ratios: no more
brains to develop in such a way
than 3 (and for high-risk children,
as to "expect" negative inter-
preferably 2) infants per adult; and
actions with others. Once the
brain structure develops to
Each infant assigned to only one or
accommodate these anticipat-
two primary caregivers who feed,
ed negative interactions, it
change, and play with the baby, allow-
is increasingly resistant to
ing the baby to form meaningful,
change, placing the child
secure relationships with those who
at risk for later emotional
care for him. Caregivers should not
problems.
change each year (any more than we
would recommend parents changing
every year) but should stay with the
same infants for at least three years.
When Sensitive,
Responsive Care
Doesn't Come
Naturally
It may seem that provid-
ing a child with sensitive,
responsive care is just a
natural instinct, some-
thing that all parents
able to re-work his or her earlier
fusing advice about how to treat the
should be able to do reasonably well.
experiences (often through positive
baby, with some friends and relatives
Indeed, the majority of parents do
relationships later in life or counsel-
telling them to lavish the baby with
provide care that facilitates their
ing), he or she can indeed have a very
affection and attention, and others
child's healthy development within
positive relationship with his or her
warning that the child will be spoiled
their cultural context. However,
own children.
if the parent holds him too much or
research has shown that across social
comforts him too quickly. Parents
groups, as many as 30% of children
need to be given reliable information
receive care that puts them at risk for
based on research about the impor-
later social, emotional, and cognitive
tance of sensitively responding to
difficulties.' Among children in pover-
Other Influences on
their babies' signals, and reassurance
ty, the rate of emotionally inadequate
that they can meet their babies'
care is even higher.'
Children's Emotional
needs.
Reading and responding to a
Some parents may have particu-
baby's cues is not always easy. Many
Development
lar difficulty providing sensitive care
parents, especially young or new par-
to their infants because of their own
ents, need help learning how to tell
The evidence presented here thus far
early experiences in life. Research
when their baby is hungry, bored,
may make it seem that mothers are
has shown that parents who remem-
ready to play, or ready to rest. Even
almost solely responsible for their
ber their own parents as cold and
the most skilled parent may have dif-
children's healthy emotional develop-
unresponsive are likely to act the
ficulty sensitively responding to her
ment. We know that this is not true.
same way with their children, where-
baby's signals when under severe
There is growing scientific evidence
as those who remember a warm, sup-
emotional or financial stress.
that fathers play an equally crucial
portive relationship are likely to be
Furthermore. some babies are easier
role in supporting children's healthy
affectionate and responsive to their
to "read" than others, and parents
development.' We also know that
children.' However, history is not
may have difficulty responding to a
other adults in a child's life, including
destiny. There is ample evidence that
baby that doesn't match their
grandparents, aunts and uncles,
when a father or mother has been
expectations. They may receive con-
friends, teachers, and child care
providers can have an important
impact on the child's development.
There is also strong evidence
Emotional Breakfast: The Foundations of Learning Readiness
that economic and community-level
that children need a
For several decades, educators and policy-makers have recognized
factors influence children's emotional
nourishing breakfast each morning in order to succeed in school. Common sense tells
development. Poverty is a particularly
children to learn if they lack energy or
us and research confirms that it is difficult for
strong risk factor for poor
stomach. Today; scientists and educators
are distracted by the rumblings of an empty
developmental outcomes, as are low-
that is limiting many students' ability to
are calling attention to another kind of hunger
quality child care, poorly functioning
learn: emotional hunger. Like physical hunger, unmet emotional needs prevent children
schools and a lack of community ser-
from engaging in the business of learning.
vices. In contrast, well-functioning
The link between emotion and learning is perhaps easiest to see in a newly mobile
communities can provide important
infant who is just beginning to actively explore and learn from his caregivers and envi-
protective factors for children and
ronment. He learns that his gestures, such as touching his Dad's nose, can lead to a big
families. Churches, community pro-
smile and "Toot! Toot!" in return, a first lesson in causal thinking. This kind of emotional
grams, and even informal neighbor-
interaction with adults helps infants and children develop communication, thinking, and
hood networks can provide crucial
problem solving skills."
support to parents who are having
Furthermore, when an infant has consistently received what he needs from his par-
difficulty raising their children. In
entscomfort when upset, stimulation that is not overwhelming, and plenty of loving,
addition, well-designed church,
playful interactionshe learns to trust that the world is a safe place to explore. He will
school, or park district programs
occasionally "check in" with his parents for reassurance as he plays, but is free to spend
which give older children the oppor-
energy exploring and learning. In contrast, if a child has not received sensi-
his
most of
tunity to form lasting, close relation-
tive care from the parent, he will have difficulty trusting that the parent will keep him safe
ships with warm, loving adults can
and will be there when needed. Therefore, the child spends a great deal of energy either
help support their healthy develop-
ensuring that the parent pays attention to him, or vigilantly watching for any signs of
ment.
danger in the environment. As a result, his ability to explore and to learn can
be compromised."
Likewise, children who have experienced a long history of unmet emotional needs
1
school. Lacking a sense that all is
are likely to have difficulty learning when they enter
well with the world, they may be constantly distracted by worries or fears. They are likely
to lack the confidence and sense of competence that they need to succeed. Therefore,
before they reach school
programs designed to help children become "ready to learn"
children's emotional needs are
age must pay particular attention to ensuring that the
being met in infancy, toddlerhood and the preschool years.
Gunnar, M R. et al. (1996). Stress reactivity
Educating child Welfare and protec-
5
Recommendations
and attachment security. Developmental
tive services workers, attorneys,
Psychobiology, 29, 191-204.
and judges who make decisions
Traditional intervention strategies for
Dawson, G., Hells, D. & Frey, K. (1994).
6
about the custody of young
Social influences on early developing bio-
children at high risk for academic
children about the importance of
logical and behavioral systems related to
failure have often ignored the emo-
risk for affective disorder. Development
long-lasting, warm, close relation-
tional foundations of children's devel-
and Psychopathology, 6, 759-779.
ships, particularly during the first
opment, narrowly focusing on
Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Kroonenberg, P.
7
three years of life.
M. (1988). Cross-cultural patterns of
promoting cognitive growth. Similarly,
attachment: A meta-analysis of the Strange
pregnancy and crime prevention pro-
Through these strategies we can help
Situation. Child Development, 59, 147-156.
grams, as well as preventive mental
ensure that children develop the
Egeland, B. & Farber, E. (1984). Infant-
8
mother attachment: Factors related to its
health services, have frequently con-
healthy emotional foundations
development and change over time. Child
centrated on older children and ado-
necessary for success.
Development, 53, 753-771.
lescents, ignoring the key role of early
Main, M. & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting
9
experiences and relationships in fos-
rejection of her infant from mother's repre-
sentation of her own experience:
tering later success. New strategies
Implications for the abused-abusing inter-
that specifically address the emotion-
generational cycle. Child Abuse and
Recommended Reading:
al needs of infants, toddlers, and
Neglect, 8, 203-217.
young children must be developed Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional
10 Pruett, K. (1993). The paternal presence.
Special Issue: Fathers. Families in Society,
and implemented. Some promising
intelligence: Why it can matter
74, 46-50.
more than IQ. New York:
approaches include:
11 Werner, E. E. (1990). Protective factors and
Bantam Books.
resilience. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff,
Pediatric health care providers
Gottman, J. (1997). The heart of
Eds., Handbook of early childhood inter-
vention. New York: Cambridge University
parenting: How to raise an
sharing information about
Press.
children's emotional needs with
emotionally intelligent child.
12 Greenspan, S. (1997). The growth of the
parents. Pediatricians with develop-
New York: Simon and Schuster.
mind. Reading, MA: Addison-Wessley.
mental training can offer this infor-
Greenspan, S. (1997). The growth of 13 Lieberman, A.F. (1993). The
lge
emotional
of the toddler. New York: The Free Press.
mation themselves or may team up
the mind. Reading, MA:
14 Carnegie Corporation of New York (1996).
with a child development specialist
Addison-Wesley.
Years of promise: A comprehensive learn-
who can answer parents' questions Lally, J.R., et. al. (1995). Caring for
ing strategy for America's children. New
infants and toddlers in groups:
and provide reassurance, support,
York: Author.
15 NICHD Early Child Care Research Network
Developmentally appropriate
and helpful advice;
(1997). The effects of infant child care on
practice. Washington, DC:
infant-mother attachment security: Results
Community-based parent support
ZERO TO THREE.
of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care.
programs, including parent groups
Child Development, 68, 860- 879.
ZERO TO THREE (1992). Heart Start:
and home visiting models. These
16 University of Colorado at Denver
The emotional foundations of
voluntary programs can be useful
Department of Economics (1995). Cost,
school readiness. Washington,
quality and child outcomes in child care.
for all parents and are particularly
D.C.: Author.
Author: Denver, CO: Author.
helpful for highly stressed or young
17 Lally, J.R., Griffin, A., Fenichel, E., Segal,
families who need more assistance
M., Szanton, E. & Weissbourd, B. (1995).
Notes
Caring for infants and toddlers in groups:
in learning how to effectively meet
Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Sroufe, L. A.
Developmentally appropriate practice.
1
their baby's needs;
(1993). Resilience as process. Development
Washington, DC: ZERO TO THREE:
and Psychopathology, 5, 517-528.
National Center for Infants, Toddlers,
Ensuring that child care for infants
Sroufe, L. A., Fox, N. E. & Pancake, V. R.
and Families.
2
and toddlers is of the high quality
(1983). Attachment and dependency in
needed to support healthy emotion-
developmental perspective. Child
al development; (See box.)
Development, 54, 1615-1627.
Author: Theresa Hawley, Ph.D.
Egeland, B. et al., op. cit.
3
Photos: Kathy Richland,
Counseling and infant mental
Carlson, M. & Earls, F. (1997).
4
Paul Meredith and the Good Beginnings
Psychological and neuroendocrinological
health services for parents who
Program in Peoria, Illinois.
sequelae of early social deprivation in insti-
need professional help in establish-
tutionalized children in Romania. Annals
ing warm, positive relationships
©1998 Ounce of Prevention Fund
of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807,
with their infants; and
419-428.
and ZERO TO THREE
ZERO
Ounce of Prevention Fund
TO
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