ERIC ED449907: Safe Start: How Early Experiences Can Help Reduce Violence. An Ounce of Prevention Fund Paper.

8 Pages·2000·0.34 MB·English

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DOCUMENT RESUME
PS 029 202
ED 449 907
Hawley, Theresa
AUTHOR
Safe Start: How Early Experiences Can Help Reduce Violence.
TITLE
An Ounce of Prevention Fund Paper.
Ounce of Prevention Fund.
INSTITUTION
American Legion Child Welfare Foundation, Inc.,
SPONS AGENCY
Indianapolis, IN.
2000-00-00
PUB DATE
NOTE
7p
Ounce of Prevention Fund, 122 South Michigan Avenue, Suite
AVAILABLE FROM
2050, Chicago, IL 60603-6198; Tel: [phone]; Fax:
312-922-3337.
Descriptive (141)
Opinion Papers (120) Reports
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
*Child Safety; Early Childhood Education; *Early Experience;
DESCRIPTORS
Family Programs; Home Visits; Preschool Children;
*Prevention; *Violence
ABSTRACT
Noting that many communities have overlooked a promising
approach to reducing violence in the United States, this report examines
early risk factors for violence and discusses the potential of prevention and
intervention programs for children ages birth to 5 years. The report defines
violence and discusses the importance of early experiences in learning
self-control for predisposing the child to respond appropriately to future
(1) child abuse
situations. Early risk factors for violence are described:
(2) witnessing violence; and (3) brain damage resulting from
and neglect;
severe physical abuse or prenatal drug exposure. The report further presents
promising interventions, including home visiting and parent support programs,
early childhood education and care, and services for children who witness or
who are the targets of violence. The report concludes that research on
effective interventions provides hope that communities can substantially
reduce violence by investing in young children and their families. (Contains
19 reference notes.)
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EafrOy Experiences
Can Help
_Reduce Vicience
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1
Understanding Violence
In order to understand how working
with very young children and their
families can help reduce the incidence of
violent behavior, it is useful to first define
what constitutes violence. Biologists and
sociologists have defined violence as
aggressive behavior that goes beyond the
limits of social acceptance. Aggression
asserting one's will on anotheris itself
not necessarily a bad thing. From an
evolutionary perspective, aggression can
be an adaptive response that allows an
animal or person to ensure that his or her
needs are met. Indeed, people are often
admired for "standing up for themselves"
or for aggressively pursuing victory on an
athletic field.
Acts of physical aggression are termed
..1111isibkaare.,s-
"violence" when they are out of propor-
tion to the situation at hand. Clearly,
beating one's spouse during an argument,
By almost any measure, the United States is the most violent
shooting a fellow motorist because he cut
developed nation in the world. The U.S. Department of
you off, and placing a child in scalding
Justice reports that in 1997 alone, over 3 million Americans
water after a toileting accident are
considered violent acts because they are
were the victims of violent crimes, including over 300,000 children
outside the range of socially acceptable
who were abused and 18,000 people who were murdered.' Polls
behavior in these situations. One way
consistently indicate that Americans are afraid that they or someone
high quality early childhood programs
can help prevent violent behavior is by
they love will be a victim of a violent crime. These fears have
helping children understand what is and
persisted despite the well-publicized recent decline in the rates
what is not acceptable at an early age,
of murder and other violent crime.
before negative behavior patterns are
established.
Reducing violence is near the top of the agenda for nearly
every candidate for local, state, or national office. Many initiatives
Learning Self-Control
have been proposed and implemented to reduce the incidence of
Fven more important than knowing
right from wrong, however, is being
violent crime, including community policing, stiffer sentences for
able to control one's own behavior.
convicted criminals and programs to keep adolescents involved in
Psychologists call the ability to match
positive activities and "off the streets." However, many communities
one's emotional responses and behavior
to the demands of a situation "emotional
have overlooked what a national organization of law enforcement
regulation". It is not an inborn ability, but
officials and crime victims cites as the most promising approach to
rather one that is learned through inter-
reducing violence: prevention and intervention programs for very
actions with caregivers and peers.
young children ages birth to five. Built on decades of research on
Most parents learn quickly that newborn
child development, these programs are making lasting differences
babies have a very limited capacity for
and helping young children receive a safer start in life.
slightest
emotional
the
regulation:
The Ounce of Prevention Fund was established in 1982 as a public/private partnership to promote the well-being of children and adolescents
by working with families, communities and policy-makers. This paper has benefited from the work of several experts, including: Joy Osofsky,
Sanford Newman, Megan Gunnar, Alicia Lieberman, andirving B. Harris.
distress may prompt them to cry
intensely, and they are often unable to
...early experienc
calm down without their parents' help.
Given lots of sensitive, loving care and
in learning selkontro
time for their nervous systems to
mature, most babies by age six months
can have
begin to learn self-soothing strategies
and are able to maintain a more "even
long-lastin
e
keel." More difficult self-control chal-
lenges emerge as the child learns to
reach for objects, crawl, and walk.
Curiosity often gets the best of babies
and toddlers wanting to explore things
declared "off- limits" by their parents.
Early Risk Factors
long-lasting
Early
have
effects.
For Violence
emotional experiences help shape the
is during this age that aggressive
It
rime statistics consistently indicate
developing brain, altering both struc-
behavior begins to emerge. Toddlers
ture and neurochemistry, and can
k......ithat some individuals are far more
have poor control over their aggressive
prone to violence than others. Many
predispose a person to respond appro-
urges; they are famous for grabbing toys
risk factors have been identified that
priately or inappropriately to future
away from one another and for hitting
appear to be related to the propensity
situations'
Researchers have
or biting anyone who stands in their
(see box).
for violent behavior. As with all devel-
long observed that children who exhibit
way. Parents and caregivers need to
severe conduct problems in middle
opmental outcomes, no one risk factor
teach children how to behave appropri-
is definitive. The overwhelming major-
childhood and early adolescence are at
ately when feeling jealous, frustrated, or
angry. They do this not only by
ity of children who experience one or
very high risk for becoming violent
two of these risks do not, become
research
adults.
Conversely,
discouraging unacceptable behavior,
also
violent adults. However, when children
but also by modeling appropriate
demonstrates that positive early experi-
experience several of these risk factors,
ences help children develop the capacity
behavior and teaching children accept-
to form loving, caring relationships
the likelihood increases substantially
able ways to express their feelings.
that they will commit a violent act
with others. The advantages of starting
as an adult.
early in preventing violence are dear.
Setting appropriate limits on children's
behavior and helping them develop
self-control is difficult and does not just
THE BIOLOGY OF VIOLENCE
come naturally to many parents. Like
0
many of the skills needed to raise
ver the last decade, neuroscientists have made tremendous strides toward
healthy children, these behaviors are
understanding the biology of violent behavior. Research on both humans
often learned (or not learned) by
and animals has pointed to. the important role of certain brain chemicals,
parents very early in their own lives.
especially the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline, in regulating aggres-
Parents who suffer from depression,
sive behavior. Serotonin appears to act as a "braking" mechanism on aggressive
have few psychological resources, or
impulses: studies show that very low levels of serotonin are related to impulsive
who are under severe stress may have
behavior and explosive rages..Noradrenaline, in contrast, is like an accelerator: high
particular difficulty helping their chil-
levels of this brain chemical are related to a constant state of hyper-arousal, in
which a person might-quickly over-react to even the slightest'apparent threat.
dren learn how to behave appropriately.
Early childhood intervention programs
Research in animals and some preliminary research in humans suggest that
can help parents develop effective
early childhood experiences are an important predictor of an individual's neuro-
discipline strategies. Programs that
chemical balance. Negative experiences, particularly severe neglect and trauma, can
work directly with children, such as
cause long-lasting changes in noradrenaline and serotonin levels in some individu-
developmentally appropriate child care
als. Children who live in highly threatening environments adapt by becoming
programs, can also
children
help
hyper-vigilant and hyper-reactive to perceived threats, and may become less able
to control their own behavior. Although there is no evidence that these types of
develop self-control.
changes in brain chemistry are irreversible, it does appear that prevention and
earlier intervention is likely to be more effective and far less expensive than latter
Recent research suggests that early
attempts at remediation.
experiences in learning self-control can
Child abuse and neglect: In 1997,
the
and
television
under
sleep
almost 300,000 children in the United
windowsills to be safe from stray bullets
EVIDENCETHAT
States were the subject of confirmed
that might come through the windows.
EARLY CHILDHOOD
reports of abuse, and over 500,000
PROGRAMS WORK
more children were found by child
Physiological research on victims who
TO REDUCE CRIME
protective agencies to be neglected.'
have witnessed violence indicate that
Research over the past several decades
watching horrifying events can overload
The promise of high quality
has consistently shown that children
the brain's "stress management" system,
early childhood education and
leading to long-lasting changes in how
who suffer abuse or neglect are far more
care as a crime prevention
the brain functions. Contrary to the
likely than their non-maltreated peers
strategy has been well demonstrated
to abuse their own children when they
common belief that babies and toddlers
by three longitudinal studies that
are adults. Recent research stt:ests that
are not significantly affected by witness-
began in the 1960s and 70s and
ing violence because they are "too
child maltreatment contributes to other
that
followed
children's
have
types of violent crime as well;' several
young to understand," even very young
development through adulthood:
children often exhibit symptoms after
studies have shown that the majority of
the
University
Family
Syracuse
traumatic experiences! They become
those incarcerated for murder, rape, and
Development Research Program; the
hyper-vigilant and hyper-reactive to
or
abused
severely
assault
were
High/Scope Perry Preschool Study;
stimuli, and may develop significant
neglected as children.'
and the Prenatal and Early Infancy
attention
and
learning
problems.
Study. Two of these randomized trials
Because young children's responses to
Less obvious problems in parent-child
with
provided
at-risk
children
relationships can also contribute to the
witnessing violence are only beginning
high-quality center-based care and
development of a predisposition to
to be researched, the long-term conse-
education, the Syracuse study provid-
violence. Research shows that children
quences of exposure to violence are not
ing full-time care (40 hours per week)
preliminary
yet
However,
who have secure early relationships with
clear.
beginning in infancy and the Perry
parents are less likely to develop the
evidence suggests that children who
offering
half-day
Preschool
a
type of behavior problems in later
witness violence are at increased risk for
program beginning at age three or
of
that
developing conduct disorders and for
predictive
childhood
are
four. Both programs also involved
violence in adulthood! In fact, positive
becoming violent as adults.
parents at the center and through
parent-child relationships, especially if
home visits. The Prenatal and Early
Brain damage. Neurobiologists have
continuously positive from early in life,
Infancy Study provided families with
discovered that some types of brain
can buffer children against other risk
regular home visits by nurses during
pregnancy and for two years after
factors they might encounter as they
injury are likely to lead to an increase in
the child's birth.
grow up, such as community violence,
violent behavior. Damage to the frontal
cortex, the region of the brain that
later abuse or neglect, and negative peer
The results are impressive. In the
helps modify our aggressive tendencies
Syracuse Study, less than 2% of the
influences.
the program were
and fear responses, has been shown to
individuals
in
Witnessing violence: Witnessing
reported delinquent by age 16, as
lead to greater aggression in animals.
compared to 17% of the control
violence is an all too common experi-
Retrospective studies of inmates suggest
group.'6 Similarlyonly 7% of Perry
ence for young children in America.
that poor functioning and/or structural
Preschool children had been arrested
In one survey done at an inner-city
damage in this region of the brain is
five or more times before age 27, as
pediatric clinic, almost all of the chil-
very common among violent offenders?
compared to 35% of the children
This type of damage can result from
dren under age six had been exposed to
denied services in early childhoodY
multiple forms of violence either in
severe physical abuse, including shaken
Infancy
Early
Prenatal
and
The
their homes or in their community,
baby syndrome.
Program resulted in a 50% decrease
with 10% having witnessed a shooting
in delinquency among the children
Studies also have shown that more
stabbing?
teachers
or
Preschool
through age 15, and an even greater
frequently describe children playing
subtle types of brain damage that can
arrests among the
reduction
in
lead to behavior problems may be
"funeral" in the classroom, trying to
mothers
cost
themselves.'9
The
make sense of the common experience
caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol,
savings attributable to this reduction
in their communities of losing friends
cocaine, and other drugs. Similarly, lead
in crime more than offset the invest-
poisoning either in utero or in early
and family members to murder. In our
ment required for these high-quality
childhood has been associated with
country's
"inner-city
war zones,"
early childhood programs.19
parents teach their children to watch
juvenile delinquency.'° Poor prenatal
preferably cover the entire
care and nutrition also have been impli-
birth-to-six period);
(2)
cated: children born at low birthweight
include educational infant-
are at increased risk for behavior prob-
or
child
care
toddler
lems in childhood and violent behavior
preschool; (3) provide child-
later in life."
and
information
rearing
parents; and
Promising Interventions
support for
(4) offer health care,
Rrxearch confirms that a child's
educational, and vocational
periences in infancy and very
parents
for
as
early childhood build a foundation
services
for what is to follow. Yet, it is during
needed.13
this same period that familiesfaced
Early childhood programs
with all the demands, anxieties and
appear to influence later
excitement of parenthoodoften
violent behavior through
receive little help or attention. There
pathways.
multiple
As
are several promising strategies that
suggested above, develop-
communities can adopt to support
mentally appropriate early
children's healthy development and
Early childhood education and
reduce the risk of later
childhood education and care teaches
violent
children social skills and helps them
care: Longitudinal studies have demon-
behavior.
develop the capacity to regulate their
strated that high-quality early childhood
emotions. Children in these programs
Home visiting and parent support
education and care can reduce the risk
also gain cognitive skills and are less
programs: Many of the early risk
of criminal behavior in adolescence and
likely to experience school failure, a
early adulthood (see box). Programs with
factors' for violent behavior described
strong predictor of later violent
in this
report can be addressed
the greatest effect appear to be those
behavior. Finally, high quality early
that: (1) last at least two years (and
though community-based home visit-
strengthen
programs
childhood
ing programs, which provide parents
parents' capacity to effectively care
who choose to participate the infor-
for their children throughout child-
mation, advice and support they need
in their new role.
hood and adolescence.
these
Ideally,
programs start working with young
Services for children who witness
parents even before their first child is
or are the targets of violence: It is
born; c producing healthier pregnan-
only in the last 25 years that mental
cies and better birth outcomes for
.5
.
health professionals have recognized
babies. The programs continue to
5.
the importance of providing counsel-
work with families over a period of
.5
.
-
.
ing and other services to young
several months or years in order to
children who have witnessed or been
help them establish positive parent-
- -
of
New
violence.
the
victims
child relationships. Home visitors
approaches to treatment have been
help parents to
understand and
e6
developed, including play therapy
their
to
respond
appropriately
.
and counseling for parents and care-
infants' and toddlers' behavior, while
givers.'4 Yet these services are still
managing the sometimes overwhelm-
.
- -
unavailable in many areas of the
ing stress associated with caring for
ee
country, and are frequently not reim-
very young children. Research has
. .
.
-
bursed by insurance.
shown that high-quality home visit-
-
-
e
6
ing programs can significantly reduce
Special initiatives in New Haven,
the incidence and severity of child
.
- -
Connecticut and New Orleans have
I
abuse and neglect, especially among
- I
paired police departments with local
high-risk families.12 These programs
university-based child mental health
can also help parents nurture their
-
.
programs to help ensure that children
children's emerging capacities for
VIII
0
who witness violence are given the help
emotional regulation and caring.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 3-25.
society New York'Guilfo'ila Press.
they need.° Police officers are given
10 Mirsky, A.F & Siegel (1994). The neuro-
4 Niehoff, D. (1999). The biology tfavfrnee:
special training in how to work with
biology of violence and aggression. In
New Yobs The Free Press.
child witnesses and victims at crime and
Understanding and preventing violence,
5 Osofsky, J.D. & Fenichel, E, Eds. (1996).
Vol. 2: Biobehavioral perspectives on
In addition, they
accident scenes.
Islands cfsafety: Assessing and orating young
violence. Washington, DC: National
viaims gvioknce. Washington, DC: ZERO
provide families with referrals for addi-
TO THREE
Research Council.
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11 Kanarek, R.B. (1994). Nutrition and violent
6 Garbarino, J. (1999). Lost boy Why
au" sans
officers systematically and immediately
behavior. In Understanding and prettmting
turn violent and how ur can save them. New
violence, IQ 2 Biobehaviond penpectives on
contact a mental health professional
York The Free Press.
violence. Washington, DC National Research
specially trained in helping young chil-
Notes
Council.
dren who have experienced trauma.
12 Olds, D.L, Henderson, CR., Chamberlin, R
U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice
1
These programs have been enormously
& Tatelbaum, R (1986). Preventing child
Statistics, posted at www.ojp.uscloj.gov/bjs/
2 Niehoff, D. (1999) The biology of vioktice:
abuse and neglec t:. A randomized
successful in helping not only young
How understanding the brain, behavior, and
trial of mirse home visitation. Pediatrics,
children, but also the police officers and
environment can break the vicious circle of
78, 65-78.
parents who so often struggle with how
13 Yoshikawa, H (1994). Prevention as
aggression. New York The Free Press.
to respond to traumatized children.
cumulative protection: Ejects cf z kfamio,
3 Wang, C.T. & Daro, D. (1998).
Current trends in child abuse reporting and n9port and education on chaotic delinquency
fatalaties The results tithe 1997 annual fzfty
and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28-54.
Conclusions
14 Osofsky, J.D. & Fenichel, E, Eds. (1996).
state survey Chicago, IL: Prevent Child Abuse
is a complex problem that
VTiolence
1
safity: Assasing and aratingyoung
Mantis
America.
V will require multi-faceted solu-
4 Widom, C.S., & Maxfield, M.G. (1996).
victims of violence. Washington, DC ZERO
ID THREE
A prospective examination cf risk for violence
tions. Traditionally, violence prevention
15 Osofsky, J.D. (Ed.) (1997). Children M a
among abused and neglected children. Annals
strategies have focused on adolescents
of the New York Academy of Sciences, 794, violent society New YorIcGuilford Press.
and adults. There is strong evidence,
16 Lally, J.R, Mangione, PL & Honig, AS.
256-276.
however, that the propensity for violent
5 Lewis, D.O., Mallouh, C, and Webb, V.
(1988). The Syracuse University Family
Development Research Program: Long-range
behavior is also influenced by many
(1989). "Child abuse, delinquency, and violent
impact ofan ear y intervention with
criminality." In Cicchati, D. and Carlson, V.
early childhood factors. Research
kw-incrome children and their
Eds. Child maltreatment theory and research
on effective interventionsincluding
families. In D.R Powell, ed., Parent education
on the causes and consequences of child abuse
home visiting, early childhood educa-
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as early childhood intervention: Emerging direc-
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tion and care, and community-based
University Press.
6 Egeland, B., Carlson, E & Sroufe, LA (1993).
NJ: Ablex Publishing, pp. 79-104. Data cited
programs for children who witness or
Resilience as process. Development and are based on re-analyses completed by Fight
are victims of violenceprovides hope
Crime: Invest in Kids.
Psychopathology, 5, 517-528.
that communities can substantially
17 Schweinhart, LJ., Barnes, H.V. & Weikart, D.P.
7 Taylor, L, Zudcennan, B., Harik, V., & Groves,
(1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope
B.M. (1994). Witnessing violence by young
reduce violence by investing in young
children and their mothers. Journal of
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children and their families.
Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.
Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 15,
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120-123.
Suggested Reading
8 Zero To Three (1994). Caring for infants
(1998). The promise of home visitation:
Karr-Morse, R & Wiley, M.S. (1997). Ghosts
and toddle's in violent environments: Hurt
Results of two randomized trials Journal
1
healing and hope. Washington, DC
from the nursery:: Tracing the roots of violence.
of Community Psychology, 26, 5-21.
ZERO TO THREE
New York Atlantic Monthly Press.
19 Karoly, LA. Greenwood, PA, Everingham, S.
2 Reiss, AJ. & Roth, JA, Eds. (1993).
a al. (1998) Investing in our children: What
9 Golden, CJ., Jackson, M.L, Peterson-Rotate,
Understanding and preventing violence.
we know and don't know about the costs and
A, & Gontkovsky, S.T. (1996).
Washington, DC National Academy Press.
benefits of early childhood interventions. Santa
Neuropochological correlates of violence and
RAND Corporation.
3 Osofslcy, J.D. (1997). Children in a viole nt
Monica,
amnion: A review of the clinical literature. CA:
THE
OUNCE OF
PREVENTION
FUND
Author: Theresa Hawley, Ph.D.
Photographs: Marilyn Nolt
Design: Henry McGill Design
122 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 2050
©2000 Ounce of Prevention Fund
Chicago, IL 60603-6198
Phone: [phone]
We wish to thank the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation,
Fax: [phone]
Inc. for their support of this report.
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