ERIC ED449191: Preparations for Modelling the Relationship between Competence and Qualifications. No. 77.

43 Pages·2000·0.61 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
TM 032 299
ED 449 191
Rasmussen, Ole Elstrup; Jensen, Jorgen Aage
AUTHOR
Preparations for Modelling the Relationship between
TITLE
Competence and Qualifications. No. 77.
(Sweden). Cognitive Science Research.; Copenhagen
INSTITUTION
Lund Univ.
Univ. (Denmark). Competence Research Centre.
ISSN-0281-9864
ISSN
2000-00-00
PUB DATE
45p.; Produced with financial support from the Danish
NOTE
Research Councils.
Reports - Research (143)
PUB TYPE
MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
*Competence; Computer Software; Educational Theories;
DESCRIPTORS
*Models; *Qualifications; *Simulation; *Student Evaluation
Virtual Communities
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This report presents basic theoretical and methodological
assumptions for investigating the relationship between competence and
qualifications by means of simulation tasks. An analysis of the types of
tasks that have been used in the study of problem solving psychology serves
as a background for an exposition of the relationship between competence and
qualifications. The vehicle for investigating competence and qualifications
is the INTOPIA computer program, which simulates a virtual international
reality of global enterprises from construction of plants to the sale and
financing of products. Findings are reported from a pilot experiment
involving two teams of two adults each, the aim of which was to examine the
feasibility of using the program in research. Findings indicate that the
number of sessions needs to be reduced from the amount used in the teaching
situation for which it was developed originally. The issues for investigation
in a forthcoming experiment and the tool to be used for modeling the behavior
of subjects are outlined. (Contains 35 references.)
(Author/SLD)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
ISSN 0281-9864
Preparations for Modelling the Relationship
between Competence and Qualifications
Ole Elstrup Rasmussen
Jurgen Aage Jensen
2000
No. 77
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Preparations for Modelling the Relationship
between Competence and Qualifications
Ole Elstrup Rasmussen
Jurgen Aage Jensen
No. 77
2000
Cognitive Science Research
Lund University
University of Copenhagen
Editorial board
Bernhard Bierschenk (editor), Lund University
Inger Bierschenk (co-editor), University of Copenhagen
Ole Elstrup Rasmussen, University of Copenhagen
Helge Helmersson (adm. editor), Lund University
JOrgen Aage Jensen, The Royal Danish School of Educational Studies
Adm. editor
Cognitive Science Research
Helge Helmersson
Copenhagen Competence
Dep. of Business Adm.
Research Center
Lund University
University of Copenhagen
P.O. Box 7080
Njalsgade 88
S-220 07 Lund
DK-2300 Copenhagen S
Sweden
Denmark
2
Abstract
theoretical and methodological
includes a presentation of basic
This report
assumptions for investigating the relationship between competence and qualifications
by means of simulation tasks. An analysis of the types of tasks that have been used in
the study of problem solving psychology serves as a background for an exposition of
the relationship between competence and qualifications. The vehicle for investigating
task that
competence and qualifications is the INTOPIA program, which involves a
simulates entrepreneurial enterprise. Findings are reported from a pilot experiment,
in
the aim of which was to examine the feasibility of adapting the program for use
research. In particular, the findings indicate that the number of sessions needs to be
reduced considerably from the amount used in the teaching situation for which it was
originally developed. Finally, the issues for investigation in a forthcoming experiment
and the tool to be used for modelling the behaviour of the subjects are outlined.
4
3
Contents
1. Overall Aim of the Project
4
1.1 The Content of this Report
4
1.2 The Concepts of Task and Problem
5
1.2.1 Goal attainment task
7
1.2.2. Serial goal attainment task
7
1.2.3 Target attainment task
8
1.2.4 Stability attainment task
9
1.3 Summary
9
2. A Conception of the Relationship between
Competence and Qualifications
9
2.1 Basic Assumptions
9
2.1.1 Dorner's position
10
2.1.2 The ontology of SimCom
10
2.2 Definitions
13
2.2.1 Competence
13
2.2.2 Qualifications
14
2.2.3 Learning
15
2.3 The Structure of the Concepts
15
2.4 The Process View of the Conception
16
3. A Pilot Experiment
17
3.1 The Course of Task Engagement
17
3.1.1 Subjects preparation
17
3.1.2 Duration and distribution of activities
17
3.1.3 Handling the task materials
18
3.1.4 Concluding remarks about handling task materials
20
3.2 Preliminary Examination of Instruments of Analysis
20
3.2.1 Systemic networks
20
3.2.2 PERTEX an instrument for mapping mental structure
21
3.3 Changes to the Experimental Set-up Following the
Pilot Experiment
23
3.3.1 Selection of subjects
23
3.3.2 Duration of task engagement
23
3.3.3 Changes in directions for use of templates
24
3.3.4 Construction of new tools for subjects
24
3.4 Summarising the Results of the Pilot Experiment
24
4. Discussion and Perspectives
24
5. Final Remark
27
6. References
28
Authors' Note
31
Appendix
4
1. Overall Aim of the Project
The aim of the project Simulation studies of competence and qualifications
(SimCom) is to investigate the relationship between competence and qualifications,
the development of leadership. A number of theoretical
and to
elucidate
considerations and preliminary observations form the basis for developing the
experimental set-up (described below) that will enable us to achieve our goal. A
model for the description and analysis of human characteristics has been developed
(Jensen & Nissen, 1997), certain strategies for analysing dynamic tasks have been
and
established (Jensen & Bredo, 1978; Jensen, 1990; Jensen & Bertelsen, 1991),
preliminary observations have been made of dynamic modelling as an educational
tool (Jensen, 1992).
Further, the data collection will be guided by a theory of competence and
(Elstrup
qualifications development and a theory of leadership/administration
Rasmussen, 1997, 1998). The simulation task that will be used in this series of
experiments will be generated by the computer program INTOPIA (Thorelli, Graves &
of
Lopez, 1995). The standard version of this type of task includes management
production-, sales-, and marketing systems. The version adapted to fit the current
study is described below. The task requires participants to perform reiterative searches
and process information in order to make decisions, observe the consequences of their
own actions, and make new decisions.
The study of the complex psychological processes involved in leadership and
the unfolding of competence requires types of tasks that are sufficiently complicated
for such processes to occur. Simulation tasks/dynamic tasks, as argued below, meet
this requirement. The overall aim of our endeavour is to contribute to the research
literature concerning the generalisation of knowledge. How can competence,
qualifications, and leadership/administration capacities, which are developed in a
specific experimental context, be generalised to larger, more comprehensive, 'natural'
contexts? An essential issue in this general formulation is the problem of domain-
bound qualifications and domain-independent competence (Sternberg & Frensch,
1991; Frensch & Funke, 1995).
1.1 The Content of this Report
The current report presents the findings from our exploration of the strengths
and weaknesses of INTOPIA, the task selected for further experiments (Thorelli et al.,
1995). This task has been developed over the last few decades as a means for teaching
and learning economics. monk is a simulation program, which simulates a virtual
construction of plants,
reality of global
enterprises concerning
international
manufacturing, sale and financing of products. A prominent feature is that the
into a stream of truly
(top
entrepreneurial
simulation "...forces participants
management) decisions of business philosophy and objectives..." (Thorelli et al.,
1995, p. 1)
INTOPIA has many attractive features for our purpose, including access to the
underlying model, with options for simplifying the task. It offers an assorted selection
of information for the participants, as well as a wide range of response possibilities.
However, it was considered an empirical question whether it could be sensibly
adapted for experimental purposes, with constraints such as relatively few sessions,
the enlistment of experimental subjects, and the need for no particular demand on
knowledge of economics.
6
5
A pilot study designed to address the use of INTOPIA in this context is
presented below. The results indicate that it is indeed feasible to adapt the program for
experimental purposes.
Our first experiments explore the relationship between competence and
qualifications; an examination of 'leadership' is postponed until later experiments.
This report also presents a brief account of the background for selecting simulation
tasks, as well as an exposition of our conception of competence and qualifications.
basis and methodological
report outlines
theoretical
the
Finally,
this
constraints for conducting experiments on competence and qualifications.
1.2 The Concepts of Task and Problem
The concept of task denotes an experimental setting that exists as an
exhaustive listing
ideally
environment. The description of a task encompasses an
of possible states and the legal transformations within the task. This description is,
obviously, independent of potential participants in the study. Any task order can be
described by two parameters, the type of component relations and the type of
organisation.
The term 'problem' denotes how the subject construes the situation, what
(s)he perceives, where to go, and how to reach the end. Figure 1 attempts to integrate
a characterisation of the task with a subject-dependent setting of 'problem'.
Figure 1.
The Relation between the Concepts of Task and Problem
Type of component
Task order
relations
Dynamic
Static
Target
Goal
Transparent
attainment
attainment
Type of
organisa-
tion
Stability
Serial goal
Intransparent
attainment
attainment
Problem
The following list of statements explicates the figure, which can serve as the basis for
characterising the selected examples of problem-solving studies that are presented in
the following sub-sections.
A task has a finite set of states; this applies in principle, but some 'dynamic tasks'
have such a huge number of states that in practice the set of states may be
considered infinite. One of the states is the initial state.
6
A task always encompasses at least one input and one output component, i.e. a
task has an I/O- interface. A task may encompass one or more internal
components.
A component or a set of components can change randomly, linearly or non-
linearly. In practice, randomly changing components are of no major significance
in tasks utilised in problem-solving experiments. Tasks constructed by means of
non-solvable systems of non-linear equations are yet to be seen within the field of
problem solving.
Components are organised either as a series of causal relations or as a network of
causal relations. In the latter case, the task may encompass direct feedback, which
function of its
means that in a one-component system, a component changes as a
which means that a
own output. The task may also encompass indirect feedback,
component changes as a function of one or more components that are functionally
dependent on the first component.
A task organised as a series of relations is considered static, whereas a task
organised as a network of relations is dynamic.
A dynamic task is either moving towards a state of equilibrium because of a pre-
dominance of negative feedback, or moving away from equilibrium because of a
predominance of positive feedback. In practice, dynamic tasks are not constructed
to move away from equilibrium because they are extremely difficult to manage.
If a task encompasses one or more components or sets of components that cannot
be manipulated directly or indirectly through input components, the task is said to
be intransparent, otherwise the task is said to be transparent.
Given a specific input or a specific and finite series of inputs
subsequently
a transparent, static task reaches an endstate. When
called a specific input
receiving the final input, a state is reached that makes further inputs impossible;
thus, the subject has solved the problem by attaining the goal.
Given a specific input, a transparent, dynamic task reaches a state of equilibrium.
A repetition of the last input preserves the state of equilibrium; thus, the subject
has solved a problem by attaining the target.
Given a specific input, an intransparent, static task reaches an end-state. However,
the task may at any point change in such a way that a different end-state is reached
when applying another specific input; thus, the subject has solved the problem by
attaining a series of goals.
Given a specific input, an intransparent, dynamic task reaches a state of
equilibrium. However, repeating the last input does not necessarily preserve the
state of equilibrium. In order to preserve the state of equilibrium, a new specific
input must be applied; thus, the subject has solved the problem by attaining
stability.
The parameters of task order combined with the concept of problem seem to be
capable of clarifying a good deal of empirical observations. In an intransparent,
dynamic task, the problem appears as stability attainment; in a transparent, dynamic
task, the problem appears as target attainment; in an intransparent, static task, the
problem appears as serial goal attainment; and finally in a transparent, static task, the
problem appears as goal attainment.
In the following sections, prominent instances of each type of task will be
briefly reviewed, providing support for the relevance and validity of the experimental
design for the proposed experiments.
7
1.2.1 Goal attainment task
The Tower of Hanoi is a well-worn task in cognitive research. It has been
thoroughly investigated by Klix (1971), and it was the vehicle for proposing "The
theory of learning by doing" [our italics] (Anzai & Simon, 1979). Recently,
researchers have used the task as a neuropsychological tool, attempting to identify
frontal lobe dysfunction (Krikorian et al., 1994). The task has been conceived of,
somewhat intuitively, as requiring 'planning ability', but a proper task analysis has
not substantiated the claim.
Three pegs on a board are labelled A, B, and C. A number of seriated discs
and the smallest one at the top.
are positioned on peg A, the largest one at the bottom
The problem consists of getting this series of discs transferred to peg C, using peg B
adhere to two
as a relay station, in as few moves as possible. The moves must
constraints: only one disc at a time can be moved and a larger disc cannot be placed
above a smaller disc. The challenge of the problem is to make the moves in the proper
of redundant moves,
sequence. Inter-subject variation consists of the number
redundant with respect to necessary and sufficient moves, which is given by the
expression
2n
1,
n denoting the number of discs.
If performance in the task is to be used to reveal cognitive processes, a task
analysis must be conducted. Thus, aspects of performance that are specifically
contingent on the concrete task must be distinguished from aspects that are of
psychological interest beyond the concrete situation.
When such a task analysis is performed (see e.g., Bredo & Jensen, 1983, p.
74), it becomes apparent that the necessary and sufficient moves can be divided into
blocks of five different operations in a particular sequence. For instance, for a five-
disc version of the task, the number of states is 31. Each block of states comprises the
operations of 'partitioning', 'relaying', 'assembling', 'sub-goal solution', and 'new
sub goal'. Each of these terms refers to the series of discs. At first glance, one might
think that since there are 31 states, there are also 31 situations in which to choose the
next move. However, when the rules of the game are considered, the only real options
reducing the number of
are in the partitioning operation and the assembling operation,
situations in which a choice can be made to eight. The basis for deriving subjects'
strategies, from the pattern of choices during the solution, is correspondingly reduced.
This type of task is obviously transparent and static in the sense specified above.
1.2.2 Serial goal attainment task
The well-known Wisconsin Card Sorting Test can serve as an example of
this type of task. Four cards containing geometric figures varying with respect to
number, form and colour are presented to the subject. Each card from a separate pile
of cards has to be matched with one of the four cards, and the subject has to discern
the sorting principle. The subject is informed whether his/her categorisations are
correct or not. When the subject has attained a stipulated number of correct responses,
the experimenter changes the criteria for the category, without notifying the subject.
The subject then has to adapt his/her choices to a new situation. The number of
presentations of cards is considered a measure of the subject's flexibility (see e.g.,
Posner & Raichle, 1994).
8
When the card sorting task and the experimenter are viewed as one 'system',
the system is considered intransparent. Thus, the subject, in fact, has to attain a series
of goals of the same kind.
1.2.3 Target attainment task
In Berry and Broadbent (1995, p. 132), the subjects of the experiment
...took on the role of manager of a simple SUGAR PRODUCTION
FACTORY and were required to reach and maintain specified levels of
sugar output by varying the number of workers employed.
The equation relating sugar output to workforce "was such that there was no unique
output associated with any one input" since "the resulting sugar output depended on
the previous sugar output as well as the new workforce figure." (ibid., p. 133)
According to Buchner (1995, p. 49),
...the system operates according to a simple equation, which states that
the sugar output at time t+1, St+1, is determined by the most recent output
St and the present input 4, the number of workers employed by the
subject:
St+1= 2 11- St
where 1 = I = 12 and 1= S = 12. The values of / are multiplied by 100
and the values of S are multiplied by 1,000 to represent the number of
workers and the sugar output in tons, respectively, at time t.
In the equation, the term 'Sr' may be interpreted as if the workers at time t+1 are tired,
due to the hard work performed at time t. One possible implication is that at any time,
except at time to, only part of the workforce is active. An alternative interpretation of
the equation is that a portion of the working hours has to be used for production
dependent maintenance. If the target value is an even number, 8(000) for example, it
is possible to attain the target value and maintain the production at that level by using
8(00) workers (8=2*8-8). When the target value is an uneven number, for example
7(000), it can only be approximated. In order to maintain an average production of
7(000), that is, 8(000) at time t and 6(000) at time t+1, the subject has to use 7(00)
workers (8=2*7-6 and 6=2*7-8).
In the Berry and Broadbent experiment, the equation was not given to the
subjects. However, in several similar experiments, the subject was told that the output
was determined by his/her input, and that he/she should "try to crack the pattern"
(Berry & Broadbent, 1995, p. 144). The experimenters made the relationship between
input and output variables more or less salient by changing the instructions. When the
salience was high, the subjects performed better. When the subjects knew that the
problem was governed by some sort of regularity, they were not only able to control
the system better, they were also better at explaining why they performed as they did.
Thus, the type of component relations is dynamic, because a network of
causal feedback relations among the variables of the task exists. In the 'factory', the
amount of workers influences the production, which in turn influences the amount of
level of production. The type of
workers necessary for attaining a specific
organisation is transparent, because the task does not encompass unreachable
components.
10