ERIC ED442796: At Risk Teachers.

8 Pages·1997·0.18 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
SP 039 328
ED 442 796
Hammond, Ormond W.; Onikama, Denise L.
AUTHOR
At Risk Teachers.
TITLE
Pacific Resources for Education and Learning, Honolulu, HI.
INSTITUTION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),
SPONS AGENCY
Washington, DC.
1997-00-00
PUB DATE
NOTE
7p.
Pacific Resources for Education and Learning, 828 Fort
AVAILABLE FROM
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Cultural Influences; Elementary Secondary Education;
DESCRIPTORS
Countries;
*Employee Absenteeism; *Faculty Mobility; Foreign
Job Satisfaction; Teacher Attendance; *Teacher Burnout;
Teacher Characteristics; Teachers; *Teaching Conditions
Pacific Region
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This paper examines research on risk factors affecting
and stresses in
teachers, noting that teachers encounter daily challenges
define. Consequences of
working with today's students. Risk is difficult to
attrition. Research
risk can include stress and burnout, absenteeism, and
and chronic and
shows that everyday events, even positive ones, cause stress,
and
traumatic negative stress can lead to many forms of illness
and teachers'
maladjustment. Leading stressors include student misbehavior
and burnout include anger, anxiety,
own characteristics. Symptoms of stress
psychosomatic symptoms,
depression, fatigue, frustration, substance abuse,
School reform and
family crises, and reduction in commitment to students.
Teachers' attendance is
working conditions can contribute to teacher burnout.
barriers
influenced by both organizational practices and attendance
Teachers with higher
(transportation, illness, and family responsibilities).
less frequently. The
job satisfaction and involvement tend to be absent
primary reason for
immediate atmosphere of the school environment is a
factors contribute
teacher attrition. Many external, employment, and personal
of risk factors in
to teacher attrition. There are some unique patterns
environmental factors,
Pacific schools that relate to cultural events,
off. A graphical
family/village social roles, and culturally sanctioned time
is presented.
representation of what research suggests about risk factors
(Contains 22 references.)
(SM)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
A
Ink
elMh_
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LEARNING
EDUCATION
PACIFIC RESOURCES
AND
FOR
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813-4321
Suite 500
828 Fort Street Mall
W
by
Denise L. Onikama*
Ormond W. Hammond
No more homework, no more books
No more teachers' dirty looks...
Traditional Children's rhyme
Teachers are soldiers in the educational trenches, overcoming obstacles that make their work
challenging and stressful. Imagine dealing daily with groups of 20 to 30 children, some of
them bright and eager, some disruptive and inattentive, some possibly even hostile.
Imagine being held responsible for shaping the minds of the next generation. And then imagine
community as a professional.
not being paid very well and not even being respected in your
Imagine, for some teachers, facing classrooms full of children from unfamiliar cultures,
whose home languages you may not understand. In remote islands of the Pacific, you may be the
only teacher in a one-room schoolhouse with children of all ages. You may have no way of even
directly communicating with the outside world.
It should come as no surprise, then, that teacher absenteeism and attrition are problems that
risk factors in
face educational systems, and particularly those in the Pacific region. What are the
the lives of teachers? Much has been written about students who are at risk, who may drop out.
What about their teachers?
Interest in this topic for the Pacific began with the Pacific Resources for Education and
Learning's Research and Development Cadre study of High School Students At-Risk (PREL R&D
Cadre, 1995). Open-ended questions answered by students indicated that they felt vulnerable to
results,
teacher absenteeism and to poor teaching and disciplinary methods. In considering these
teachers.
the PREL Board of Directors suggested follow-up research on risk factors among
is
This paper examines research that has been done on risk factors that may affect teachers. It
research on stress and
not intended to be exhaustive or definitive. There is a huge body of
burnout generally (C.F. Goldberger and Breznitz, 1993), although not much on how these relate
concerning some of these
to teachers. Rather, the purpose is to raise the awareness of educators
DO
factors. Preventing the negative outcomes of risk factors can help teachers become more effective
CIS
and thus promote more positive student outcomes.
_.
(NO
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
CN
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
no
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
AVAILABLE
BEST COPY
0 This document has been reproduced as
,!;)
received from the person or organization
originating it.
Lk.
Ormond W. Hammond, Ph.D., is Director, Research and Evaluation, PREL.
*
Minor changes have been made to
c]
kr3
?
Denise L. Onikama is Evaluation Specialist, PREL.
improve reproduction quality.
Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do not necessarily represent
Page I
At Risk Teachers
official OERI position cr policy.
Other Negative Outcomes
goes up. Blood pressure rises. Muscular
What is Risk?
tension increases and can be measured.
The literature from the United States
The concept of "risk" has proven dif-
But are these changes positive or nega-
emphasizes monetary losses as a result
ficult to define. It is derived from the
tive? There is no way to know for sure.
of teacher absenteeism (Hill, 1982;
public health and actuarial fields in
The experience of anxiety is an entirely
Unicomb et al. 1992 and Pitkoff. 1993).
which some factor or condition can be
subjective one. Some athletes induce
School districts end up paying for both
shown to statistically relate to a known
higher levels of tension (psyching up)
the substitute and the classroom teacher.
medical condition or outcome. If a per-
before contests because it enhances their
In many cases, school boards have found
son smokes, for example. the risks for
that they do not receive much from these
performance.
heart disease and cancer increase. Risk
A corollary of difficult and stressful
twice bought services (Hill, 1982).
does NOT mean a direct, one-to-one,
work conditions is a condition which has
Scott and Wimbush (1992) cite several
causal relationship. Not every person
been termed burnout (DeRobbio. 1995).
studies that looked at the cost of teacher
who smokes develops heart disease. And
Webster's (1988) defines this condition
absenteeism. One particular investigation
some who do not smoke do. But smok-
as "exhaustion of physical or emotional
of three school systems (Detroit,
ing is seen as a predisposing condition.
strength." A number of studies have
Philadelphia, and New York) showed that
Definitions of risk, then, often use
identified sources of burnout at the indi-
their combined absenteeism costs were
terms such as "danger," "jeopardy," and
vidual, organizational and societal levels
approximately $500 million per year.
"possibility of loss." Factors or condi-
(DeRobbio & Iwanicki, 1996). An
These costs included wages for the absent
tions that can lead to negative outcomes
instrument to measure burnout, the
teachers as well as the substitute teacher
may be said to place a person "at risk."
Maslach Burnout Inventory (1986), was
and time taken from the administrator
In education, simply establishing
designed for this purpose. On the aver-
who must contact, instruct and evaluate
such relationships can be difficult. Few
age, studies that have utilized this instru-
substitute teachers. Another study found
outcomes in education are as clear-cut
ment found that teachers do not perceive
that interruptions in the continuity of the
and unequivocal as diseases are in medi-
themselves as experiencing higher levels
students' regular instruction contributed to
cine. And there are so many pre-existing
of burnout than other helping services
lower achievement scores and increased
conditions, from personal characteristics
the remedial costs of education.
professions.
to the educational system itself, that
A study conducted by Pitkoff (1993)
direct relationships are difficult to detect.
was designed to examine the relationship
Absenteeism
between school organizational variables
On absenteeism. Hill (1982) uses this
What are the Consequences
and teacher absenteeism using a large
definition: "absence from duty, work or
of Risk?
high school sample. Several results were
station: especially, such absence when
One way of identifying risk factors is
obtained, but of particular importance to
deliberate or habitual." The term
to first identify negative outcome condi-
the Pacific was that significant relation-
absence, in contrast, is defined as. "a
tions and look for factors which predict
ships existed between increased teacher
state of being away or not present."
or correlate with these outcomes. In
absenteeism and lower student achieve-
Absenteeism may be for valid and justi-
PREL's review of the literature, three
ment in reading writing and mathemat-
fiable reasons and may be asked for in
types of negative outcomes affecting
ics. poor student attendance, and higher
advance. Or it may be unpredictable and
teachers were often cited. These were:
student dropout rates.
chronic. Whether planned or unplanned.
stress and burnout
In summary, these findings point out
absenteeism creates a host of problems
absenteeism
that negative consequences do not stop
at all levels of the educational system.
attrition
with the obvious ones. This is a complex
system which may start with risk factors.
Attrition
Stress and Burnout
proceed through stress to attrition and,
The literature describes attrition as
What is stress? While specialists
finally. to lower student achievement.
leaving the profession of teaching
have operationally defined stress in a
Anything that can be done to reduce or
(Ascher. 1992: Gonzales & Sosa, 1993:
variety of ways, a layman's definition
mitigate teacher risk factors before the
and Betancourt-Smith. et al, 1994).
may be found in Webster's New
negative consequences start would be of
Regarding special education, Gonzalez
Collegiate Dictionary (1988): stress is "a
immense value to individual teachers
(1995) further divides the term into
physical. chemical, or emotional factor
and the whole educational system.
transfer attrition and exit attrition. The
that causes bodily or mental tension and
former includes those teachers who
may be a factor in disease causation."
What Has Been Learned About
transfer to other special education posi-
What makes stress so difficult to deter-
Stress and Burnout?
tions within or outside a certain school
mine is that there is no absolute way to
or district, as well as those who transfer
Research has shown that everyday
measure it. What makes one person anx-
to regular education either in the same or
events, even positive ones, cause stress
ious and tense may be a source of plea-
(Holmes and Rahe. 1967). It is also clear
a different school or district. The latter
sure for another person. There are, how-
that chronic and traumatic negative
refers to a separation from teaching
ever, some ways to measure the effects
stress can lead to many forms of illness
itself.
of stress. The autonomic nervous system
3
and maladjustment (Pelletier. 1977:
shows changes. for example. Heart rate
At Risk Teachers
Page 2
results showed women and men in the
ating a greater sense of-efficacy and con-
American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
study demonstrated different patterns of
trol among teachers. In actual implemen-
It would seem to make sense, then, to
absenteeism with age. For females, the
tation however, there is no guarantee that
seek a better understanding of the types
number of days claimed rose with age.
teachers will be involved in decision-
of acute and chronic stress that affect
On the other hand, males in their thirties
making or work with their peers, or that
teachers in their everyday lives. Also,
claimed more days than men at any
they will feel empowered by their added
what interventions might increase the
other age. Significant correlations with
responsibilities.
resiliency of teachers and better enable
absences were found for gender, certifi-
Ascher (1992) referred to other urban
them to face these stresses?
cation, and level taught. They found that
school studies that focused on working
A study conducted by Martin (1988)
elementary school teachers tended to
conditions as a key to retaining good
and cited by DeRobbio and Iwanicki
miss significantly more time than sec-
teachers. Such conditions are associated
(1996) examined the relationships
ondary school teachers.
with better teacher attendance, more
between urban teacher burnout and the
The Scott and Wimbush (1991)
effort, higher morale and a greater sense
numerous background factors of age,
research also noted that child care is a
of efficacy in the classroom. These con-
gender, race and grade level taught.
factor associated with gender and related
ditions involve:
Martin found that burned-out teachers
to absenteeism. Traditionally, absen-
Strong, supportive principal
tended to be white, male, teaching at the
teeism associated with women has been
leadership
secondary level and with less than 10
attributed to child care responsibilities.
Good physical working condi-
years of teaching experience. Qualitative
The women in this study indicated more
tions
research was also mentioned in which
role conflict than men in the study. This
High levels of staff collegiality
teachers who were obsessional, passion-
study also found absenteeism highly
High levels of teacher influence
ate, idealistic and dedicated were more
related to student outcomes.
on school decisions
prone to burnout.
High levels of teacher control
The DeRobbio and Iwanicki (1996)
over curriculum and instruction
What Has Been Learned About
study found that the symptoms of stress
and burnout in teachers were:
Teacher Attrition?
anger
On the other hand, working over -
Demographics, environment, back-
anxiety
time, lack of staff, material, equipment
ground, and attitude toward leaving the
betrayal
or funding resources create stress among
educational field have been recognized
depression
as risk factor areas. Apparently, howev-
school staff.
fatigue
er, it is the immediate atmosphere of a
frustration
teacher's current school environment
What Has Been Learned About
resentment towards others
that teachers identify as a primary rea-
Teacher Absenteeism?
boredom
son for leaving the field (Betancourt-
In the Scott and Wimbush (1991)
cynicism
Smith, et al, 1994). Their study com-
study, teacher absenteeism was systemat-
substance abuse
pared a profile of minority teachers with
ically examined in secondary education.
psychosomatic symptoms
non-minority teachers in selected states.
Scott and Wimbush utilized the Steers
marital and family crises
These researchers also compared factors
and Rhodes model (1978) in which the
reduction in commitment to
previously identified as correlated with
major components consisted of "atten-
students
attrition to the findings of their study.
dance motivation" and "perceived ability
Results showed single teachers tend-
to attend." Job satisfaction was the sin-
Most frequently related to teacher
ed to leave the classroom entirely,
gle most important factor affecting atten-
stress were organizational, student, admin-
whereas married teachers moved into
dance motivation. Other employee atti-
istrative and teacher initiated factors.
other roles in education, such as admin-
tudes that were related to attendance
School reform has been found to be
istration. Researchers also found that
motivation were job involvement, orga-
another source contributing to burnout.
persons from white collar families (e.g.,
nizational commitment, and loyalty to
Farber and Ascher (1992) noted the
office workers), whose parents paid for
co-workers.
sometimes stressful impact of several
the majority of college expenses, were
According to these researchers,
components of school restructuring
more likely to leave the educational
teachers' attendance is influenced by
including:
field than persons from blue collar fami-
both organizational practices and by
School-based management
lies (e.g., laborers), whose parents did
attendance barriers. These barriers
Accountability
not pay for the majority of college
include illness, family responsibilities,
Career ladders
expenses. Other candidates for leaving
and transportation problems. In general.
Schools within schools
were described as secondary school
teachers with higher job satisfaction as
Curriculum initiatives
teachers who did not perceive their prin-
well as job involvement were absent less
Flexible scheduling
cipal as supportive of creativity, who
frequently.
Team teaching
worked in an environment which is cul-
A study done in nine Nova Scotia
turally different from their own, and
schools looked at short-term teacher
These reforms have the potential of
who did not share a student ideology
absenteeism (Unicomb, et al. 1992). The
improving the context of teaching by cre-
Page 3
At Risk Teachers
outside of the teacher and the employing
the shore without a bridge are
with their colleagues. Teacher attrition
school district.
unable to attend school for the day
and its effects on standards of education
or several days.
has been referred to as a constant topic of
Employment factors
Family and village social roles.
debate (Wari, 1993).
Employment factors include professional
In other circumstances, this fac-
The inquiry by Wan labels attrition as
qualifications, work conditions, work
"wastage," characterized as, "the percent- tor might be called nepotism.
rewards, and commitment.
Simply put. a teacher may be a
age of teachers who leave teaching in a
defined periodusually one year.
member of a large and influential
Personal factors
family in the public school sys-
Wastage or attrition is caused by deaths,
Personal factors include demographic,
tem. That teacher's absenteeism
retirement or resignation although more
family and cognitive/affective variables.
is overlooked. Although the pub-
often attrition due to death and retirement
Both urban and rural settings were ana-
lic views nepotism as wrong, it
is quite small." This study in Papua New
lyzed. The rural factors, of primary inter-
may be tolerated as a cultural
Guinea found that the teacher wastage
given.
problem in both community and high
est in the Pacific, were:
Culturally sanctioned time off.
schools had not been addressed properly
Low salaries or poor benefits
One form of this is "Monday
over the years. As a result, although suf-
Multiple teaching assignments
sickness," in which young, single
ficient number of teachers were being
Little control over school policy
male teachers have a particular
trained in the colleges, many were not
pattern of absence from school.
taking up teaching, or current teachers
Are There Unique Patterns in
This is basically recovering from
were leaving the profession either right
Pacific Schools?
a weekend of excess, involving
after training or after some years of train-
This section presents descriptions
alcohol or other locally approved
ing.
compiled from discussions with the
narcotic substances. The absence
A consistent list was generated when
PREL R&D Cadre, Pacific Educators in
of these young males is seen as a
these teachers were asked to rate the con-
Residence (PEIRs) at PREL and other in-
social and developmental pattern
ditions of most concern. In order of prior-
house sources. They may be considered
which is tolerated because of the
ity, these were:
hypotheses for further study.
age of these teachers.
Low salary
Pacific Island schools, from the State
Any absence in the Pacific is likely
Lack of promotional opportunities
of Hawaii to the Republic of Palau, have
to strongly impact student achievement.
Poor accommodations
adopted the American system of educa-
In many parts of the region there is no
Lack of upgrading opportunities
tion. Throughout the region this system
substitute teacher program. Lack of
Lack of teaching materials
exists in parallel with a uniquely Pacific
funds is cited as the primary reason.
and supplies
cultural heritage, including Polynesian
Students simply do not have class when
and Micronesian traditional values. As a
a teacher is absent. This affects atten-
Other issues may be connected with
result, the risk factors affecting teachers,
dance counts as well. Such situations
teacher dissatisfaction, but not necessari-
and the consequent outcomes, sometimes
may adversely affect school funding,
ly result in teachers leaving the profes-
take on different forms. Here are some
which keeps the negative cycle going.
sion. These issues included concerns
examples.
In some parts of the Pacific. schools
relating to transfer, working relations
Cultural Events. In some island
have inconsistent record keeping sys-
with staff, students, and community and
communities traditional feasts and
tems of teacher attendance. Therefore, it
amount of teaching and non-teaching
funerals are an important part of
is difficult to tell who are the specific
duties. Several of these concerns can be
village life. It has been observed,
individuals not in school, regardless of
applied to the situation in the Pacific
for instance, that if a feast falls on
whether these absences are legitimate or
entities. For example, supplies and mate-
a school day it is likely that the
due to cultural reasons.
rials are limited, and in some instances
teacher (who may hold a tradi-
Teacher attrition also takes different
the school buildings themselves are said
tional title) will not go to school,
forms in the Pacific. A major concern in
to be in poor condition. As a result, envi-
but rather prepare for the event.
some entities is that teachers leave for
ronmental conditions may make the job
These family relationships are
another entity where the pay is higher or
of teaching an unpleasant task.
highly valued among Pacific
the benefits greater. In Hawaii, there
Gonzalez (1995) described factors
Islanders and should be taken into
has been a loss of teachers in recent
that contribute to attrition in a
account.
years because of retirement. Replacing
Networking System for Training
Environmental factors,
these teachers with newcomers (malihi-
Education Personnel (NSTEP)
Some unique weather patterns may
ni) from the mainland is a major con-
Information Brief. This author catego-
cause teacher absenteeism in the
cern in Hawai`i. These newcomers are
rized factors as external, employment,
Pacific. Hurricanes and even
subject to severe culture shock when
and personal.
"supertyphoons" affect many parts
they are asked to teach in a rural, native
of the region. In Hawaii, giant
Hawaiian community school. for exam-
External factors
winter north swells may close
ple.
External factors include societal, eco-
roadways. If flooding occurs, then
nomic, and institutional variables that are
all those who live on one side of
Page 4
At Risk Teachers
5
holistic approach includes nutri-
Risk and Outcomes: A Model
How do Risk Factors Generally
tion, exercise and coping skills
In this model. certain factors are
Relate to Negative Consequen-
training.
hypothesized to protect against risk fac-
ces for Teachers? A Possible
Improve working conditions.
negative
tors and lead away from the
Model
Work with teacher groups to iden-
outcomes and towards positive out-
Identifiable risk factors do not cause
tify and address areas of concern
of
comes. While it is beyond the scope
negative consequences in a linear, cause
from classroom environment to
this paper to discuss all of the possible
and effect relationship. The relationships
salary issues.
protective factors. it is clear that they run
in one
are cyclical, and what is a cause
Cultural accommodation.
the gamut from personal resiliency to
relationship may be an effect in another.
Look for creative ways to over-
educational system support for teachers.
The following is a graphical. simplified
come some of the unique cultural
There are thus many potential inter-
representation of what the research
risk factors affecting the region. If
ventions and actions which an educa-
interrelat-
seems to suggest. a system of
feast days mean teachers will be
tional system might make to foster these
absent, add feast-make-up days to
ed factors.
protective factors. To name just a few:
the school calendar as one very
Offer professional develop-
tentative example.
ment activities. These might
include stress management work-
How can an educational system foster
shops. relaxation training, and
resiliency factors? This in itself is a wor-
time management. The more
thy topic for a future research synthesis.
PROTECTIVE FACTORS
RISK FACTORS
*Administrative Support
*Daily Hassles
*Sense of Autonomy, Control
*Low Pay, No Respect
*Personal Support Systems
'Cultural Demands
*Personal Characteristics
TEACHERS
POSITIVE OUTCOMES
NEGATIVE OUTCOMES
*Active Involvement
*Burnout
*Job Satisfaction
*Absenteeism
*Professional Development
*Attrition
STUDENTS
*Self-esteem
*Absenteeism
*Achievement
*Disruption
*Graduation
*Dropout
6
EST COPY AVAILA.BLE
nt-8.
13ntleb
416
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Discussions Summaries from the
protect teachers and the educational sys-
pp. 69-84.
tem. Particularly in the Pacific, where
Micronesian Seminar. Series I, No. 5.
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
self reliance is a stated goal for the future
Hill, S. (1982). You can't afford for
(1988).
(Hezel, 1994), a solid and resilient edu-
teachers to be out, so take these steps
cational system is essential.
now to stop absenteeism.
Updating
School Board Policies A
Component of the Educational
13(30), pp. 1-4.
Policies Service,
r-t
RS 9701
Page 6
At Risk Teachers
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