ERIC ED433114: The Harvard Education Letter, 1995.

50 Pages·1995·1.4 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
PS 027 810
ED 433 114
Miller, Edward, Ed.
AUTHOR
The Harvard Education Letter, 1995.
TITLE
Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA. Graduate School of Education.
INSTITUTION
ISSN-8755-3716
ISSN
PUB DATE 1995-00-00
49p.; Published six times a year. For 1996-1998 issues, see
NOTE
PS 027 811-813.
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Harvard Education Letter; v11 n1-6 Jan-Dec 1995
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At Risk Persons; Child Abuse; Computer Uses in Education;
DESCRIPTORS
*Decision Making; Drug Use Testing; *Educational Finance;
Educational Technology; Elementary Secondary Education;
Integrated Curriculum; Learning Theories; Legal Problems;
Mathematics Education; Models; Newsletters; Partnerships in
Education; Professional Development; School Based
Management; *School Choice; Sex Differences; Sexual Abuse;
*Staff Development; *Teacher Attitudes; *Textbooks
ABSTRACT
This document is comprised of volume 11 of the Harvard
Education Letter, published bimonthly and addressing current issues in
elementary and secondary education. Articles in the volume's six issues are:
(1) January-February--"The Old Model of Staff Development Survives in a World
Where Everything Else Has Changed" (Miller), "Giving Voice to Our Hidden
Commitments and Fears: A Conversation with Robert Kegan," "Businesspeople and
Educators Have a Lot to Learn from Each Other" (Arnett);
(2)
March-April--"The Numbers Game Yields Simplistic Answers on the Link between
Spending and Outcomes" (Sadowski), "The Physically or Sexually Abused Child:
(3) May-June--"Despite the Promises,
What Teachers Need to Know" (Fossey);
School Choice Can Worsen Racial and Social Class Inequities" (Tovey), "Money
Matters Here: Programs That Work" (Sadowski), "How School Mathematics Can
Prepare Students for Work, Not Just for College" (Forman and Steen);
(4)
July-August--"The Textbook Business: Education's Big Dirty Secret" (Webb), "A
Narrowly Gender-Based Model of Learning May End Up Cheating All Students"
(Tovey), "Computers in the Classroom: Where Are All the Girls?" (Tarlin);
(5)
September-October--"Moving beyond Traditional Subjects Requires Teachers To
Abandon Their 'Comfort Zones'" (Sadowski), "Knowing No Boundaries: A
Conversation with James Beane," "Random Drug Testing of Athletes Poses Legal
and Psychological Questions" (Sandler); and (6) November-December--"Shared
Decision-Making by Itself Doesn't Make for Better Decisions" (Miller), "The
Application Essay: Texts, Subtexts, and Teacher Intervention" (Kreisberg),
"Awareness Programs Help Change Students' Attitudes towards Their Disabled
Peers" (Tovey). Regular features include letters to the editor and summaries
of recent educational research.
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1
The Old Model of Staff Development Survives
LT4
In a World Where Everything Else Has Changed
A fundamental mismatch between the demands made of educators and their opportunities
for professional growth makes for frustrated and stressed-out teachers
BY EDWARD MILLER
than allow them to learn it themselves,
had watched his kids play happily with
Howard Pit ler, principal of
at their own pace. Now I see that it's a
the program at home, and had success-
Elementary
L'Ouverture
fully taught a course on it at the local
mistake to think we all need to be in the
School in Wichita, Kansas,
same place at the same time."
was excited. His plan to re-
university.
structure the school into a technology
Pitler designed a three-day course in
Boring and Irrelevant
magnet, with computers integrated
which he would teach HyperCard to his
into all phases of instruction and a
Pitler's HyperCard class illustrates
entire staff. At noon on the first day, they
one problem with the design of many
schoolwide emphasis on cooperative
all went to lunch together. "I suddenly
realized that something was terribly
learning and small-group work, had
staff development activities in schools.
wrong," he says. "There were thirty
Research over the last 20 years has con-
been approved. And he had discovered
shown
sistently
teachers
sitting
HyperCard, the versatile, open-ended
that teachers learn
around this big ta-
Macintosh software that would, he be-
blepeople who
new methods best
lieved, be the centerpiece of his pro-
One test of professional
knew each other
not from lectures
gram, enabling teachers to develop
development is its
by experts but by
their own interactive curricula, suited
and got along really
wellbut
capacity to help
seeing those meth-
there
to their individual needs and interests.
ods used in actual
was dead silence.
He had become an expert user himself;
teachers be informed
classrooms, by de-
No one said a word.
critics of reform.
They were abso-
signing their own
learning
experi-
lutely miserable be-
cause they didn't
ences, by trying out
INSIDE: Professional
new techniques and getting feedback
get it, and they felt angry and resentful."
Development
Though the L'Ouverture teachers
on their efforts, and by observing and
talking with
fellow teachers
(see
eventually did learn the program, over
How Teachers Talk
a period of months, Pitler now looks
"Schools Where Teachers Learn," HEL,
and Don't Talk
July 1986). Teachers typically forget 90
back on that course as the worst he ever
About Their Work
taught. "I had made the techno-nerd
percent of what they learn in one-shot
workshops, researchers report.
mistake of thinking something was easy
Making School-Business
In spite of this well-documented
because it was easy for me," he says.
Partnerships Work
body of research, not much has
"Some of those teachers had had a total
of two hours experience on a Mac. I
changed in the world of staff develop-
Letter From the Editor
ment. Judith Warren Little of the Uni-
tried to teach them all together rather
EDITOR: Edward Miller. ASSISTANT EDITORS: Lisa Birk, Michael Sadowski. EDITORIAL BOARD, HARVARD GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION: Mildred
Blackman, Director, The Principals' Center; Sally Dias, Superintendent, Watertown Public Schools, Watertown, MA; Jay P. Heubert, Assistant Professor; Harold
Howe II, former U.S. Commissioner of Education; Susan Moore Johnson, Professor and Academic Dean; Robert Kegan, Seniortecturer; Jerome T. Murphy,
Professor and Dean; Gary A. Orfield, Piofessor; Robert S. Peterkin, Senior Lecturer; John Ritchie, Principal, Winchester High School, Winchester, MA; Judith
D. Singer, Professor; Jay Sugarman, Teacher, Runkle School, Brookline, MA; Dennie Palmer Wolf, Lecturer on Education.
NATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD:
John Brademas, President Emeritus, New York University; Constance E. Clayton, former Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia; Alonzo A. Crim,
Professor of Education, Spelman College; Linda Darling-Hammond, Professor, Teachers College, Columbia University; Andrew Heiskell, Chairman Emeritus,
New York Public Library; Marya Levenson, Superintendent, North Colonie Central Schools, NY; Deborah Meier, Principal, Central Park East Secondary School,
NY; John Merrow, President, The Merrow Report; Arthur J. Rosenthal, Editor, The Free Press; Albert Shanker, President, American Federation of Teachers.
David Devine.
MANAGER: Karen Maloney. PRODUCTION EDITOR: Dody Riggs.
ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT:
GENERAL
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
2
LETTER FROM THE EDITOR
Ten Years Old and Growing Strong
About ten years ago, Patricia Albjerg Graham, then dean of
Today, the vision of Pat Graham and Arthur Rosenthal re-
the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Arthur Rosen-
mains true. The demands of a Hydra-like school reform move-
thal, director of Harvard University Press, had an idea: to pub-
ment and the needs of an unprecedentedly diverse (and often
lish a newsletter that would bridge the worlds of education
troubled) generation of students make teaching in and man-
research and practice. They saw a need for an authoritative
aging schools more difficult than ever. The need for knowl-
and readable source of information on the theory and practice
edge and the pressures of time have never been greater.
of teaching and learninga publication that would help edu-
With this issue, which focuses on professional development
cators do a better job. The result of their brainstorm, the Har-
and its central importance to school improvement, we thank
vard Education Letter, first appeared in February 1985.
all who have contributed to the Letter in its first decadees-
As the tenth anniversary issue of HEL goes to press, we are
pecially our editorial board and former editors Helen Feath-
struck both by the loyal following this newsletter has won
erstone and Adria Steinberg. We acknowledge, with awe, the
among educators across the world and by the growing com-
dedication and achievements of all of you who make our
plexity of the work these professionals are doing. On issues
schools work. And we invite you to write us with suggestions
from homework to cooperative learning to tracking, the Letter
on how the Letter itself can be a more effective resource for
has helped make the work of our best teachers and scholars
your professional development. Congratulations on HEL' s
accessible to thousands of readers.
tenth birthday also cheerfully accepted.
EDWARDMILLER
work in teams with other teachers, pro-
versity of California, Berkeley, says that
shapers, promoters, and well-informed
the old "training model" for teachers'
mote "critical" and "creative" thinking
critics of reform.
development remains dominant. "Lo-
The context for changing the way
instead of rote learning, attend to chil-
cal patterns of resource allocation tend
dren's social and emotional needs, rely
teachers work has become extremely
to favor the training model over alter-
on "performance assessment" instead
complicated, says Barbara Neufeld of
natives," she observes. "The investment
of multiple-choice tests, get with the lat-
the Harvard Graduate School of Educa-
in packaged programs tends to con-
est technology, encourage active learn-
tion. "The problem is that many teach-
sume all or most of the available re-
ing in "real-life" contexts, use fewer
ers came through schools where they
textbooks, and, on top of everything
sources."
learned how to do the math problem,
else, become "agents of change" in
A 1994 study of staff development
say, but they don't actually understand
practices in four large urban districts by
their schools.
why," she explains. "Or the teacher may
understand the math but not under-
Barbara Miller and Brian Lord of Edu-
Contradictory Reforms
cation Development Center and Judith
stand what makes it difficult for chil-
The old training model of profes-
Dorney of SUNY New Paltz found that
dren. Teachers often don't have a rep-
the traditional modelshort-term pas-
sional development is simply not ade-
ertoire of examples and skills to help
quate for the ambitious visions of
sive activities with limited follow-up
kids understand. They need visual im-
was still common, even though teach-
schooling in current reform initiatives,
ages of what these new kinds of teach-
ers generally found such training
ing look likeand a human being in
argues Little. "Teachers are pressed to
boring and irrelevant. Many teachers
the classroom to observe and help
move on many fronts at once," she says,
were angry about being "subjected" to
them." Few school districts are pre-
"keeping them in an exhausting perma-
inappropriate, unfocused, or ill-con-
nent mode of implementing innova-
pared to support this kind of learning
ceived activities. They noted that the
by teachers, and even if they were,
tions." Moreover, the demands made of
there are few people around able to
teachers are often contradictory "Re-
kind of teaching they saw at such work-
forms aimed at critical thinking sit in
shops would be unacceptable in a class-
provide it.
room for children.
tension with the basic skills reforms
`A new kind of structure and culture
What has changed is the nature of
that began in the 1960s and are still a
is required," says Little, "compatible
the demands being made on teachers,
prominent part of the urban school im-
with the image of 'teacher as intellec-
provement landscape," Little points
who are faced with a staggering array of
tual' rather than 'teacher as technician.'
out. "Reformers call for more 'authen-
complex reforms. Teachers are told that
Also required is that educators enjoy
tic' assessments, but state and local
they have to set higher standards for all
the latitude to invent local solutions
policymakers continue to judge the
students, eliminate tracking, tailor les-
rather than to adopt practices thought
success of reform efforts by stand-
sons to kids' individual needs (includ-
to be universally effective."
ing those with various disabilities),
ardized test scores." Because of these
One result of this fundamental mis-
adopt small-group and cooperative
tensions and contradictions, she says,
match between the demands on teach-
ers and their opportunities for pro-
learning techniques, design interdisci-
one test of professional development is
plinary and multicultural curricula,
its capacity to help teachers act as
fessional growth is a high level of
THE HARVARD EDUCATION LETTER (ISSN 8755-3716) is published bimonthly by the Harvard Graduate School of Education, Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138-3752. Second-class
postage paid at Boston, MA, and additional mailing office. POSTMASTER: Send address change(s) to The Harvard Education Letter, P.O. Box 850953, Braintree, MA 02185.
Signed articles in THE HARVARD EDUCATION LETTER represent the views of the authors. Address editorial correspondence to Edward Miller, Editor, The Harvard Education
Letter, Gutman Library, 6 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138; telephone [phone]; fax [phone]; Internet address: EDLE'ITER @hugsel.harvard.edu.
©1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Published as a nonprofit service. All rights reserved. Special written permission is required to reproduce in
any manner,
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0
source for designing teacher-led re-
New Models Emerge
frustration and stress and a tendency to
blame others for students' failure to
search, study groups, school networks,
A few new models for effective pro-
Neufeld,
and leadership programs. The Center
learn.
"Eventually,"
says
fessional development have emerged
"teachers begin to think, 'I wonder if
also publishes Teaching Voices, a news-
in recent years. Milbrey McLaughlin
these children can learn. Another side
letter written by educators, and guides
and Joan Talbert of Stanford University
effect is the anger and resentment that
for mentoring, grant-writing, and other
concluded from a five-year study of sec-
staff development concerns.
Principal Howard Pit ler encountered at
ondary schools that strong professional
lunch. And even where change is suc-
communities provided a context for
For Further Information
cessful, teachers may experience unex-
sustained learning. They found that the
pected levels of stress. Institute for the Management of Lifelong Education,
most effective teachers had hooked up
339 Gutman Library, 6 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA
`After we became a technology mag-
with a network of professionals who
02138; 617-495-3572.
net," says Pit ler, "we began to see a
addressed problems and found solu-
J. Little. "Teachers' Professional Development in a
change in the staff. Without really think-
Climate of Educational Reform." Educational
tions together, gaining in their sense of
Evaluation and Policy Analysis
ing about it, we had redefined the role
15, no. 2 (Summer
professional identity, motivation, and
1993): 129-151.
of teacher from 'sage on the stage' to
willingness to undertake challenges.
Mass. Field Center for Teaching and Learning,
`guide on the side.' We knew in our
They also make a strong case for the
UMass/Boston, 100 Morrissey Blvd., Boston, MA
hearts that this was the most appropri-
02125-3393; 617-287-7660.
importance of "teacher discourse"
ate way to teach, but we were unpre-
M. McLaughlin and J. Talbert. "Contexts That Matter
that is, the ways teachers talk to each
for Teaching and Learning." Available from the ERIC
pared for the personal loss we felt. We
other about their workin managing
Clearinghouse (ED357023, 1993); 800-443-3742.
were no longer the sole source of
systemic reform.
Staff Development
B. Miller, B. Lord, and J. Dorney.
knowledge in the classroom. Now,
for Teachers.
Education Development Center (55
Robert Kegan and Lisa Lahey of the
often it was the student coaching the
Chapel St., Newton, MA 02158), 1994.
Institute for the Management of Life-
adult, or students coaching each other
H. Pitler, L'Ouverture Technology Magnet, Wichita
long Education at Harvard have also
Public Schools, 1539 Ohio, Wichita, KS 67214; 316-
with the teacher completely out of the
been working on new models of
833 -3075 (e-mail: [email protected]).
loop. One teacher was talking to me
teacher discourse as a prerequisite for
about this change when she burst into
"transformative" professional develop-
tears. 'I don't know who I am anymore!'
ment (see below). The Massachusetts
she said. We ended up bringing in a psy-
Field Center for Teaching and Learning
chologist to help us through the griev-
in Boston is widely cited as a model re-
ing process."
ADULT DEVELOPMENT
Giving Voice to Our Hidden Commitments and
Fears: A Conversation with Robert Kegan
Examining the ways we talkand don't talkabout our work can lead to professional
development that doesn't just inform us but also transforms us
Psychologist Robert Kegan, in his
people to develop more complex ca-
Clinical-Developmental Institute. He
books The Evolving Self and In Over
was interviewed for the Harvard Edu-
pacities of mind. We think that the most
powerful changes in professionals'
cation Letter by Edward Miller and
Our Heads, has proposed a new way of
practice come about because profes-
understanding the processes of devel-
Terry Woronov.
opment across the lifespan and the
sionals change their minds.
complex mental demands placed on
HEL: How can professional develop-
HEL: Is there something wrong with
children, adolescents, and adults by
ment for teachers be informed by an
the informative type of staff develop-
modern society. His most recent work,
understanding of adult development?
ment?
with Lisa Lahey, focuses on how tradi-
Kegan: Not at all. Informative train-
Kegan: First, we have to make a dis-
tional forms of professional develop-
tinction between two kinds of profes-
ing increases your fund of knowledge.
ment might be adapted to fit better
sional development: informative and
Lord knows, that's a useful thing. But it
transformative. Informative training
with the needs of educators in today's
is an insufficiently nourishing diet by
schools. Kegan is a senior lecturer at
transmits information. It increases the
itself. If in our work with young people
we found that their knowledge in-
teacher's content knowledge, under-
the Harvard Graduate School of Edu-
cation, a senior faculty member at the
creased, but they did not develop more
standing, and skills. Most in-service staff
designed on this
development
Massachusetts School of Professional
complex capacities of mind, we would
is
Psychology, chairman of the Institute
be disappointed. We should want no
model. But Lisa Lahey and I are more
interested in professional development
for the Management of Lifelong Educa-
less for ourselves as adults.
that is transformativethat enables
tion at Harvard, and a Fellow at the
HEL: What does transformative pro-
The Harvard Education Letter, January/February 1995
3
professional praise-givers, but they may
fessional development look like?
nate. It becomes an indirect way of tell-
ing people what you want them to do.
find after practice with the Discourse of
Kegan: It begins with school leaders
The Discourse of Ongoing Regard is
who create contexts for adult transfor-
Ongoing Regard that much of how they
mation. It's ironic that principals and
praise students is really a form of char-
about enlarging the vocabulary of your
superintendents are known as their
acterization: "You're smart."
response to others when you find your-
self feeling in some way admiring,
communities' chief child educators,
HEL: Okay, what's the second form?
Kegan: The Discourse of Personal
but their actual success depends more
moved, inspired, or informed.
on their talents as adult educators. One
Commitment or Conviction, which cre-
HEL: Can you give an example of this
ates a different context for complaints.
form of discourse?
way we have seen school leaders do this
The discourse of complaint, disap-
is by changing the discourse forms in
Kegan: I might send you a note say-
the organization, by which we mean
ing, "In watching the way you handled pointment, wishing, hoping, and so on
that difficult parents' meeting yester-
changing the rules for what one talks
is one that leaders don't usually have to
work at establishing in their schools. It
day, I got a sense of another way I could
about.
is already alive and welland usually
deal with the hard questions from par-
unproductive of transformation be-
ents that have so often left me feeling
Principals' and
cause all it leads to is letting off steam
unclear what to do." That communica-
tion has in it three elements important
or looking for allies who will sign on to
superintendents' success
your particular negative characteriza-
to effective appreciation and admira-
depends on their talents
tion: First, it's specific, rather than a
tion of somebody or some situation.
as adult educators.
When subordinates bring com-
vague "You were just so great in that
plaints to their bosses, the bosses usu-
meeting." Second, it's direct and to the
ally feel they have a limited range of
person, as opposed to my standing up
responses: they can confirm or deny
HEL: What are these rules and how
at a staff meeting and saying, "Ed was
them, they can defend themselves or
does one go about changing them?
so helpful," and never really delivering
the other parties being complained
Kegan: First, by becoming aware of
the message to you.
them. Principals, department chairs,
But the third, most important, and
about, or they can sympathize with the
and other leaders
are discourse-
complainer's position. None of these is
most difficult to achieve element is that
shapers. They influence the nature of
as transformative as the Discourse of
it is not a characterization of you. It's a
Personal Commitment or Conviction,
the language in the workplace. In every
description of my experience, which I
organization there are rules about
which is a way of inviting people to
am letting you in on. That's what distin-
translate their complaint into a new
what's appropriate to discuss, who you
guishes it from praise.
can talk to, and what subjects are not
form: the deeply felt personal commit-
Compare that to the very weird and
ment or conviction that is actually the
widely practiced form of discourse in
okay to bring up.
letters of recommendation, where
source of the complainer's disappoint-
For example, in many schools it's not
considered appropriate to talk about
ment.
every writer has this rich bank of adjec-
how well your teaching is going, be-
tives they draw from: So-and-So is very
cause that would be bragging. At the
generous and quick-witted and so on.
We invite people to
same time, it's not safe to talk about
That's what we think of as apprecia-
your teaching going badly. So those
tionwhere we characterize the other
identify what they are
person. We dress them in a suit of
very powerful and potentially transfor-
doing to undermine
mative conversations about practice
clothes that they almost always know
their own commitments.
and how each teacher feels about her
doesn't really fit.
work may never take place. At the same
If I tell you my experience, that I was
helped by what you did, that should
.time, certain other forms of discourse
are quite common: the discourse of
HEL: If my complaint is "That faculty
leave you completely uncharacterized,
meeting was boring and useless,"
complaint, of disappointment, of gos-
un-pulled-upon, undescribed. There's
what's the underlying conviction?
no record you have to correct. What
sip, of talking behind people's backs.
Kegan: Ten people with the same
you're learning is not whether you're
We have identified five relatively rare
complaint might name ten different
forms of discourse that can enhance
terrific or notthat's not for me to say
rather than inhibit professional de-
anywaybut how the things you do
commitments or convictions. It might
velopment by creating a context for
be: "I am committed to the importance
make a difference in a positive way to
of making the best use of the precious
transformation. They do not, we find,
me. When properly practiced, the Dis-
spontaneously emerge within an or-
opportunities we get as a faculty to ac-
course of Ongoing Regard helps create
ganization the way the discourse of
a safer environment for the kinds of
tually spend time together and focus on
complaint or the discourse of gossip
the nature of our work." We do that so
learning risks necessary for transforma-
does.
tion; it establishes a context for later
rarely, and when we do it's in these ritu-
alistic meetings where 80 percent of
forms of discourse that are more diffi-
The first we call the Discourse of On-
going Regard, which is about the twin
what happens could have been done by
cult or threatening.
HEL: That one sounds difficult
faces of admiration and appreciation.
memo."
It's more complex than just praising
To help people clarify their commit-
enough.
ments, we ask them to finish this sen-
and stroking people, telling them how
Kegan: It can be uncomfortable at
great they are. That can easily be un-
tence: "I am committed to the value or
first, but once teachers are accustomed
genuine and even a form of manipula-
importance of ..." The idea is not to try
to this form of discourse it can carry
tion when it's directed to a subordi-
to change the essence of my complaint
over into their classrooms. Teachers are
4 The Harvard Education Letter, January/February 1995
Looking at these hidden commit-
other people want us to do this, too.
itself but to locatz the underlying cause:
Once we begin to look at the things
ments brings us to the fifth form of dis-
the fact that I have a certain commit-
coursethe Discourse of Our Big As-
we generated in the Discourse of Per-
ment or belief. When I complain about
a student who's causing trouble in
sumptions. These are the assumptions
sonal Responsibility, we are forced to
that, typically, we don't have so much
consider the fact that we are complex
class, the commitment behind my com-
people with multiple sets of commit-
as they have us. We tend not to be aware
plaint may be to the value of having a
of them, but they have enormous influ-
nondisruptive class environment. It
ments. If I feel committed to having bet-
ence over us.
ter faculty meetings, I might identify my
puts me in a different position, experi-
HEL: If we're not aware of them,
own responsibility by recognizing that
encing myself not as a complaining, dis-
how can we begin to talk about them?
I have never actually gone to the prin-
appointed person but as a person who
Kegan: Let's say you have a hidden
cipal and said, "You know, I am really
holds certain convictions.
commitment never to hurt another per-
disappointed and disturbed about the
HEL: Does it put the leader in a dif-
son's feelings. We would invite you to
way we spend our time." I've never ac-
ferent position as well?
finish this sentence: 'And I assume that
Kegan: It changes the way leaders
tually asked for what I wanted.
if I ever did hurt another person's feel-
receive complaints. Usually either they
ings, then...." What? What emerges are
just don't want to hear them, or they
School leaders
some pretty powerful and sometimes
may have a view of themselves as he-
unwarranted fears: "The other person
invariably tell us they
roic, healing leaders, and they want to
would be so hurt that she would hate
hear all the complaints so they can
wish complainers would
me" or "She'd never trust me again."
make everything better for people. We
take more responsibility.
And then, there it is, right out there
invite instead a kind of discourse in
where you can actually look at it.
which they receive the complaint but it
Making those
Big Assumptions
gets converted into a commitment that
emerge for an interesting moment
Now I can't just vow to changethat
you really stand behind. Once that is
doesn't guarantee change. In the ab-
is, to start asking for what I wantuntil
identified and made public, there is a
I see that my behavior comes out of
sence of a context that preserves my
possibility that someone is going to act
relationship to that assumptionmy
some other commitment. For example,
on that commitment.
ability to look at itit will generally get
I may have a commitment to having the
When you derive commitments out
sucked back into my being identified
principal love me, or a commitment to
of complaints, they are by definition
never hurting another person's feel-
with it. Like Scarlett O'Hara, "I'll think
not fully realized commitments, or they
about it tomorrow" After a while it's
wouldn't have become complaints.
ings, or a commitment to never seem-
ing to be disloyal.
just gone again.
That raises the question, "Why aren't
HEL: Is this another level of dis-
they fully realized?" Well, there are
So we invite people to form ongoing
teams, or even to buddy up, to sustain
course?
many reasons why our commitments
a relationship to those assumptions in
Kegan: Yes. We call it the Discourse
are not fully realized, but the one we
order to be able to begin to explore
of Our Hidden Commitments. These
can do the most about begins with our-
them, even possibly to alter them.
are often very powerful commitments
selves. There's almost always some
that, in our naive conceptions of our-
These groups, teams, or even pairs be-
hand we have in things being the way
selves as professionals, we're embar-
come little "discourse communities,"
they are in our lives. So we invite peo-
rassed about and think we're supposed
pockets in the organization where new
ple to identify the things they are doing,
to check at the door of work. But
or very often the things they are not
forms of speech are practiced.
there's no way to check them at the
doing, that keep their commitments
HEL: What's the role of conflict in all
door. They always come in.
of this?
from being realized.
The Discourse of Our Hidden Com-
Kegan: I've focused on those forms
HEL: Is that the third form of trans-
mitments asks us to consider that the
of discourse that can support the kinds
formative discourse?
of internal work that one would do on
things we generated in the Discourse of
Kegan: Yes. We call it the Discourse
Personal Responsibility are not just
of Personal Responsibilitythat is,
oneself. There are still other forms that
professional equivalents of naughti-
have to do with making productive use
identifying the things we are doing or
ness that we should stop doing. We
of conflict. We don't believe that you
not doing that actually undermine our
should ignore conflict or that conflict
can't simply resolve to cut these things
own commitments or convictions. This
isn't a normal part of organizational
out of our act, like making a New Year's
discourse converts us from the experi-
resolution. Such resolutions have very
life. Far from it. There are forms of dis-
ence of ourselves as complaining, dis-
appointed people to people who are
course for difference that enable us not
little power because they are essentially
only to handle managerial problems
disrespectful to our own complexity.
not just committed to something but
but actually to use the conflict to en-
able to own some responsibility for
We must instead identify the underlying
commitments that are expressed in the
hance transformation.
things being the way they are.
But that's a pretty high art. We may
things we are not doing.
How important is this owning of re-
This discourse is very revealing.
need to develop a richer relationship to
sponsibility? School leaders invariably
ourselves and our own inner contra-
Once I realize that I'm actually commit-
tell us that when people come to them
ted to never hurting another person's
dictions before we can hope to make
with complaints, they always wish that
feelings, I'm likely to think, "Oh, this is
the best use of our contradictions with
the other person would be taking more
so trueand I hate that this is true."
others.
responsibility for their hand in things.
That puts me in a place where it be-
Since we are "the other person" for eve-
comes possible to change.
rybody other than ourselves, obviously
The Harvard Education Letter, January/February 1995 5
YOUTH AT RISK
at California State University yields a different conclusion.
Their long-term research found that children whose mothers
Full-Service Schools Could Let
use task-extrinsic motivators such as rewards and punish-
Teachers Go Back to Teaching
ments to encourage school performance tend to have dimin-
ished intrinsic motivation to learn over time.
The "full-service school" is a radical idea for educators over-
Stay tuned. The debate on incentives is expected to heat up
burdened by society's demand that schools "do it all." Joy
in forthcoming issues of the Review of Educational Research
Dryfoos, formerly of the Alan Guttmacher Institute and now
and other journals.
an independent researcher, proposes bringing community,
See: J. Cameron and W D. Pierce. "Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motiva-
health, and social services into schools where students and
tion: A Meta-Analysis." Review of Educational Research 64, no. 3 (Fall 1994):
their families could receive dental care, welfare services, coun-
363-423.
seling, and so on, under one roof. Her recommendations are
A. Gottfried et al. "Role of Parental Motivational Practices in Children's Academic
Intrinsic Motivation and Achievement." Journa/ofEducational Psychology 86, no.
based on a broad national survey of fledgling full-service pro-
1 (March 1994): 104-113.
grams.
The benefits of this "package of interventions," Dryfoos sug-
CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
gests, would be enormous. Families fragmented by poverty
Print-Rich Environments
could get help for many different needs in one place. Teachers
could go back to teaching. And students, served by a variety
Recommended for Young Children
of social agencies within the school, could go back to learning.
The need, Dryfoos argues, is pressing. She estimates that
Even if young children with disabilities are not ready to read
one in four public school students, or ten million young
conventionally, they can benefit greatly from exposure to
people, are at high risk of failure. They arrive at school with
"print-rich environments." So say the directors of Project I.E.P.
social, emotional, or health
(Intervention for Early Pro-
gress) at the University of
problems that make learning
difficult if not impossible.
New and Noteworthy
Texas at San Antonio.
The researchers studied
One inner-city principal de-
24 children age four to six
scribed his school to Dryfoos
underdeveloped
"an
who were identified as hav-
as
Brief notes on significant recent research in education
ing a variety of cognitive,
country "
physical, emotional, behav-
See: J. Dryfoos. Full Service Schools: A
ioral, and developmental disabilities. Two-thirds had mild to
Revolution in Health and Social Services for Children, Youth, and Families. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994.
moderate mental retardation. The children were divided into
two self-contained classes-14 in an experimental class and
10 in a control classfor an entire school year. Teachers fol-
REWARDS AND MOTIVATION
lowed the same curriculum in both classes, but the experi-
The Debate Over Incentives
mental group also had a well-stocked classroom library, which
Heats Up
children used independently several times a day; daily "read-
alouds" by adults; and a classroom writing center.
The debate about the effect of rewards and incentives on
Students worked on compositions in the writing center sev-
intrinsic motivation (see "Letting Talent Flow" and "The Case
eral times a week; the teacher accepted any scribbles or marks
Against Rewards and Praise," HEL, March/April 1994) is far
(but not coloring) as writing. The students composed on sub-
from over.
jects like holidays, the seasons, and books the teacher had read
Judy Cameron and W David Pierce of the University of Al-
to them; they were encouraged to share their compositions
berta, authors of a "meta-analysis" of 96 previous studies, say
with each other.
that extrinsic rewards have no appreciable effect on intrinsic
The experimental class showed significantly greater gains
motivation. The only exceptions, they argue, are verbal praise,
than the control group on the Concepts About Print Test, an
which significantly increases intrinsic motivation, and rewards
assessment of basic knowledge about the ways print is used
that are given simply for doing a task (rather than for meeting
to convey meaning in books. In addition, these students de-
a performance standard or completing a task), which slightly
veloped increasingly sophisticated book-handling behaviors,
decrease intrinsic motivation.
more complex and varied composition styles, and a greater
But some prominent researchers have challenged Cameron
tendency to interact with books in their free time over the
and Pierce's methods. Affie Kohn, author of the 1993 book
course of the year. A few students even progressed to actual
Punished by Rewards, says their meta-analysis excludes sev-
reading.
eral major studies that show rewards decrease intrinsic moti-
Project director David Katims says the findings challenge
vation when they are withdrawn. And psychologist Mark Lep-
conventional reading instruction methods for children with
per of Stanford University believes the analytical technique
disabilities, which often result in their having to wait until later
Cameron and Pierce used is flawed because it allows impor-
childhood for meaningful experiences with books. "A lot of
tant positive and negative effects to cancel each other out.
reading instruction for disabled children still follows a strictly
Cameron and Pierce defend both their methods and their
bottom-up approach, breaking reading down to its most sepa-
conclusions. "The literature in this area has caused a lot of
rate components," says Katims. "We're suggesting a top-down
people to be afraid of incentive systems," says Judy Cameron.
approach that begins with meaning and background knowl-
"Our research suggests that teachers can use incentives with-
edge and works its way down to word decoding."
out fear that children will lose their intrinsic drive to learn."
See: D. Katims. "Emergence of Literacy in Preschool Children with Disabilities."
A related study by Adele Eskeles Gottfried and colleagues
Learning Disability Quarterly 17, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 5 &69.
6 The Harvard Education Letter, January/February 1995
cantly greater gains in problem-solving than other students.
TEACHING MATH
Control group students received either traditional instruction
Irrelevant Information
emphasizing computation skills or no instruction at all be-
May Aid in Problem-Solving
tween pre- and post-tests.
The greater improvement among those trained in text ed-
It may seem contradictory, but giving math students irrele-
iting held whether problems contained irrelevant information
vant information (and tips on how to spot it) may help them
or not. Text editing works, the researchers conclude, "by as-
to develop their problem-solving skills Australian researcher
sisting the student to identify the structure of the problem that
Renae Low and colleagues at La Trobe University in Bundoora
is to be solved and to process information from the text in
studied the teaching of algebraic problem-solving to 208 elev-
ways consistent with the structure the student has identified."
enth-graders. The students who received instruction in "text
R. Low et al. "Solution of Algebraic Word Problems Following Training in
See:
editing"that is, identifying whether a word problem con-
Identifying Necessary and Sufficient Information Within Problems." American
tains irrelevant or insufficient informationshowed signifi-
Journal of Psychology
107, no. 3 (Fall 1994): 423-439.
PARTNERSHIPS
Businesspeople and Educators Have a Lot
To Learn from Each Other
A diverse Ohio partnership shows what can happen when business and school people
begin to see the world through each other's eyes
BY ELIZABETH ARNETT
tricts limited the use of professional
Educators often respond with
opportunities for growth and learning
leave or could not afford substitute
when
suspicion
business
to students and adults alike. I know, be-
shows an interest in public
cause for the past three years I have
teachers or bus drivers. One executive
schools. What's the business
asked why the teachers could not use
worked with the Total Quality Educa-
tion Resource Group of the Ohio
community's real purpose? Do they
vacation days and was truly shocked to
Department of Education, a diverse learn that teachers have no vacation
just want to create an education factory
partnership of more than 50 busi-
days. Most of the business repre-
that will turn out willing workers rather
nesspeople, superintendents, princi-
sentatives had financial support from
than educated citizens?
pals, teachers, support personnel, vo-
their companies, but many of the edu-
Businesspeople in turn often harbor
cational educators, state officials, and
negative attitudes toward teachers that
cators bore the expense of participating
in the project themselves.
can make productive collaboration dif-
union representatives. We share profes-
As we began to plan programs, the
sional development activities and link
ficult. Many corporate executives think
of teaching as an easy job with short
businesspeople's eyes were opened to
businesses with schools.
hours, long vacations, and a general
the problems school districts face. In
No Vacation Days?
business, training is considered work
lack of standards for performanceun-
like the tough, market-driven world of time and is conducted during the work
The path has not been smooth. All of
us have had to examine our assump-
day. In school, professional develop-
private enterprise. Schools would work
ment opportunities are usually limited
better, they think, if only they were run
tions about each other. After several ses-
to two to four days per year, including
sions the business partners expressed
more like businesses.
concern that the teachers and other
district meetings and classroom prepa-
This climate of distrust makes it hard
school staff were not really interested
to get businesspeople and educators to ration time at the start of the year. Any
work together on professional devel-
in the project because they did not al-
additional training usually occurs after
school. As one principal put it, "I'm a
ways show up for meetings. They were
opment for improving schools. And yet
weary warrior, working with other
surprised to learn that teachers often
such partnerships, when they do spring
weren't allowed to come. Many dis-
weary warriors, as we stay after school
up and manage to survive, offer superb
STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION
(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Title of publication: The Harvard Education Letter. 2. Publication no. 8755 - 3716.3. Date of filing: October 25, 1994.4. Frequency of issue: bimonthly.
5. No. of issues published annually: 6. 6. Annual subscription price: 832.00. 7-8. Mailing address of known office of publication/publisher: Gutman Library Room 349, 6
Appian
Way, Cambridge, MA 02138 - 3752.9. Harvard Graduate School of Education, Longfellow Hall, 13 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138-3752; Editor: Edward Miller, Harvard Graduate
School of Education, Gutman Library Room 349, 6 Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138-3752. 10. Owner: President and Fellows of Harvard College, Neil L. Rudenstine, President,
Massachusetts Hall, Cambridge, MA 02138-1423. 11. Known bondholders, mortagagees, or other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of the total amount of
bonds, mortgages, or other securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes
have not
changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication name: The Harvard Education Letter. 14. Issue date for circulation data below: Sept./Oct. Issue, Sept. 6, 1994.
15. Extent
and nature of circulation (average no. of copies each issue during preceding 12 months/actual no. of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date):
a. Total no. copies
(16,74622,000). B. Paid and/or requested circulation: 1. Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales (182/78). 2. Paid or requested mail subscriptions
(13,637/16,396). c. Total paid and/or requested circulation (13,819/16,474). d. Free distribution by mail (966/971). e. Free distribution outside the mail (100/75).
f. Total free
distribution (1,066/1,046) g. Total distribution (14,885/17,520). h. Copies not distributed: 1. office use, leftovers, spoiled (1,861/4,480). 2. Return from news agents (0/0). i. Total
(16,746/22,000). I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. /s/Karen E. Maloney, General Manager.
opment impossible, how in-service
tribute to the support of the city's pub-
to begin our own learning."
lic schools. They began to understand.
Time was not the only problem new
days offer little in the way of stimulation
or new experiences, and how special
to the business community. Executives
Teachers Are Too Nice
interest groups monopolize the time of
were surprised to learn that many edu-
schools boards and administrators.
Not all the learning was on the busi-
cators do not have access to secretarial
ness side of the table. Educators often
services, computers for e-mail commu-
"There is no quick, easy fix for all school
complain that businesspeople don't
problems," he concluded.
nication, or telephones in their class-
understand them because they don't
What resulted from all this learning?
rooms. With no money for substitutes,
An outpouring of support for educa-
have to work with students who are
the teachers worried about how they
tors' professional development from
could get involved in long-term pro-
hungry, neglected, or abused, and who
the business partners in our group.
vary enormously in motivation and
grams and still properly supervise their
skill. But these problems are not re-
students and maintain continuity in
Tom Baldrick of the Liebert Corpora-
tion, Don Botto of Goodyear Tire and
their classes. This, too, was simply not
Rubber, and Jed Osborn of Ball Metal
an issue in the business world. When I
Container have given their own time
suggested that the businesses in the
Educators learned that
and money to provide training pro-
group help solve the problem by offer-
the problems of hunger,
grams. Corporations have paid for sub-
ing a two- to four-day field experience
neglect, and abuse are
stitute teachers and sponsored scholar-
for students, one executive simply put
his head down on the table. "We
ships for school employees to attend
not restricted to schools.
conferences. Honda of America sends
couldn't do that!" he said, appalled at
its own employees into schools to teach
the thought of having kids in his work-
and conducts management training for
place.
stricted to schools. The worlds of edu-
"Why not?" said Bill Hayes from
teachers at its manufacturing sites.
cation and business work with the same
Superintendents, principals, teach-
Honda of America, based in Marysville,
people; there are malnourished and
ers, custodians, secretaries, and bus
Ohio. "We're doing it." Hayes and his
abused employees, and workers in the
drivers have learned new methods for
company, which runs an innovative
same setting have different levels of
solving problems and planning work.
training and development program for
ability and interest. Teachers often com-
The business community has learned
students and teachers, have been in-
plain about the amount of after-school
more about its own planning methods
strumental in educating other business
time they spend planning lessons and
partners in the Education Resource
by adapting them to the special circum-
grading papers. They learned in our
stances of schools. Perhaps most im-
Group about what is possible.
group that others take work home, too.
portant, the business partners discov-
Part of this education came via a sur-
Educators also benefited from the
ered that there is something educators
vey that the group sent to all 600 school
frank observations of business partners
superintendents in Ohio. The busi-
want even more than money: time and
like Joe Zitnik, a former AT&T executive
opportunity to learn.
nesspeople were stunned to learn from
from Brecksville, Ohio. Zitnik spent
For Further Information
time watching teachers and administra-
tors at work and reported that educa-
Business leaders were
Total Quality Education Resource Group, c/o Ben
tors were far too nice. "They're always
Lavin, Ohio Department of Education, Ohio Depart-
stunned to learn that
ments Building Room 907, 65 S. Front St., Colum-
thanking people, even for the insignifi-
bus, OH 54366-0308; 614-644-0787.
school administrators
cant," he said. "They look insincere.
Joe Zitnik, JAZ Associates, 4760 Sentinel Dr.,
They're not willing to risk offending
did not hold business in
Brecksville, OH 44141; 216-526-5666.
anyone. They praise students even for
high regard.
mediocre work." He also noted that
Elizabeth Arnett, a former middle and high school
teachers often complained about the
math, English, and speech teacher, is now an edu-
cation reform consultant for the Ohio Education
administration but weren't willing to
Association. She can be reached at 225 E Broad St.,
the more than 200 responses we re-
initiate change.
Box 2550, Columbus, OH 43216; 614-227-3100.
ceived that school administrators did
At the same time, Zitnik's apprecia-
not hold the business community in
tion for the complexity of school im-
high regard and, indeed, questioned
provement issues grew. He saw first-
their motives for getting involved in
hand how certification and work rules
education. Did business want workers
make change difficult, how the sched-
who would think creatively and solve
ule makes ongoing professional devel-
problems or simply follow orders on
Correction
the production line? Why should we
The opening scenario in the page
trust business's supposed interest in
1 article on teacher intervention in
Tired of Reading
supporting schools when at the same
the November/December 1994 is-
Someone Else's HEL?
time they push for special deals that ex-
sue was incorrectly described as
empt them from property taxes? Read-
Why not order your own subscrip-
an actual case from Toledo, Ohio.
ing the survey responses, our business
tion to the Harvard Education
In fact, it was a composite story
partners learned how the Chemical Ab-
Letter right now? Just call Cus-
based on several cases of interven-
stracts Company in Columbus threat-
tomer Service at 1-800-422-2681
tion in Toledo and Rochester, New
ened to pack up and leave town rather
(617-380-0945 in Massachusetts).
York.
than give up its tax exemption and con-
tat
8 The Harvard Education Letter, January/February 1995
Printed on recycled paper
March/April 1995
Published by the Harvard Graduate School of Education
Volume XI, Number 2
SCHOOL FINANCE
The Numbers Game Yields Simplistic Answers
On the Link Between Spending and Outcomes
Does money matter? Though politicians and pundits love to ask, it's really the wrong question
BY MICHAEL SADOWSKI
nane is not being facetious. He is simply
Educational Progress (NAEP) as further
more
for
money
Does
pointing out that quantitative research
proof that spending more money on
schools equal better aca-
methods can't account for all the com-
education does not in itself lead to bet-
demic performance? Newt
plexities of relating school spending to
ter results.
Gingrich and the Wall Street
student outcomes. He is also telling us
But Larry Hedges and colleagues at
Journal say no, relying in large part on
that "Does money matter?"a hot
the University of Chicago reached ex-
the work of Eric Hanushek, an econo-
topic in the current politics of educa-
mist at the University of Rochester. His
tionis the wrong question.
often-cited 1989 review of 38 research
studies concluded that "there is no
Schools that used smaller
The Austin Experience
strong or systematic relationship be-
classes as an opportunity
Murnane cites the case of 15 elemen-
tween school expenditures and stu-
to change instruction
tary schools in Austin, Texas. Targeted
dent performance."
because of poor student performance,
Reducing class sizethe most ex-
showed dramatic
each was given $500,000 for each of five
pensive change schools have made in
improvements.
years beginning in 1989 to raise
recent years to raise achievement
achievement. In 13 of the schools, per-
makes no difference, Hanushek argues.
formance and attendance remained ex-
He cites figures for rising education ex-
tremely low four years later; the other
penditures and falling student per-
actly the opposite conclusion last year
two, the Zavala and Ortega elementary
formance on tests like the S.A.T. and
after a new analysis including many of
schools, showed dramatic gains.
parts of the National Assessment of
the same studies Hanushek cites. Using
Using Hanushek's "vote-counting"
what they considered more sophisti-
method of analysiswhich basically
17-111M91.s.
than
methods
cated
synthesis
counts the number of studies that find
Hanushek's, they found that "expendi-
positive, negative, or no effects, and
tures are positively related to school
INSIDE
compares the totals in each category
outcomes" (italics added) and that class
What Teachers Should
the conclusion in Austin would be that
size does make a difference.
Know About Abused
additional spending has no effect, be-
Who's right, Hanushek or Hedges?
cause a large majority of schools
Children
"They're both right, if you look at their
showed no improvement. But in
data," says Richard Murnane, an econo-
Coworkers Held Liable for
Hedges's "meta-analysis" method, the
mist at the Harvard Graduate School of
Knowledge of Sex Abuse
magnitudes of the effects would also be
Education and coauthor, with Frank
measured, and the huge gains of the
Levy of M.I.T., of a forthcoming book on
More on Peer Intervention
two successful schools would lead to an
schools in a changing economy. Mur-
EDITOR: Edward Miller. ASSISTANT EDITOR: Michael Sadowski. EDITORIAL BOARD, HARVARD GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION: Mildred Blackman,
Director, The Principals' Center; Sally Dias, Superintendent, Watertown Public Schools, Watertown, MA; Jay P Heubert, Assistant Professor; Harold Howe II,
Senior Lecturer Emeritus; Susan Moore Johnson, Professor and Academic Dean; Robert Kegan, Senior Lecturer; Jerome T. Murphy, Professor and Dean;
Gary A. Orfield, Professor; Robert S. Peterkin, Senior Lecturer; John Ritchie, Principal, Winchester High School, Winchester, MA; Judith D. Singer, Professor;
Jay Sugarman, Teacher, Runkle School, Brookline, MA; Dennie Palmer Wolf, Lecturer on Education. NATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD: John Brademas, President
Emeritus, New York University; Constance E. Clayton, former Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia; Alonzo A. Crim, Professor of Education,
Spelman College; Linda Darling-Hammond, Professor, Teachers College, Columbia University; Andrew Heiskell, Chairman Emeritus, New York Public Library;
Marya Levenson, Superintendent, North Colonie Central Schools, NY; Deborah Meier, Principal, Central Park East Secondary School, NY; John Merrow,
President, The Merrow Report; ArthurJ. Rosenthal, Publishing Consultant; Albert Shanker, President, American Federation of Teachers. GENERAL MANAGER:
Karen Maloney. PRODUCTION EDITOR: Dody Riggs. ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT: David Devine.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE