ERIC ED430366: The NICHD Research Program in Reading Development, Reading Disorders and Reading Instruction: A Summary of Research Findings. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities.

10 Pages·1998·0.24 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
EC 307 219
ED 430 366
Lyon, Reid G.
AUTHOR
The NICHD Research Program in Reading Development, Reading
TITLE
Disorders and Reading Instruction: A Summary. of Research
Findings. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on
Research in Learning Disabilities.
National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc., New York,
INSTITUTION
NY.
Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC.;
SPONS AGENCY
National Inst. of Child Health and Human Development (NIH),
Bethesda, MD.
PUB DATE
1998-00-00
NOTE
9p.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities, 381 Park
AVAILABLE FROM
Avenue South, Suite 1401, New York, NY 10016; Web site:
http://www.ncld.org
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)
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EDRS PRICE
Cognitive Processes; Dyslexia; Elementary Secondary
DESCRIPTORS
Education; *Instructional Effectiveness; *Learning
Disabilities; *Reading Difficulties; *Reading Instruction;
*Research and Development; Teaching Methods; *Theory
Practice Relationship
ABSTRACT
This monograph is a synthesis of research findings of the
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development research program
concerning how children learn to read, why some children and adults have
difficulties learning to read, and effective ways to help children learn to
read. The review covered studies performed over the last 33 years at 41
research sites throughout the world with more than 34,500 children and
adults. Evidence and findings are outlined for each of these three areas.
Among nine conclusions concerning how children learn to read is that reading
is not a natural process and learning to read is a lengthy process that
begins substantially before formal schooling. The 15 conclusions for why some
individuals have difficulties learning to read are grouped into those
concerned with prevalence, developmental course, and psychometric
characteristics and those concerned with environmental, experiential, and
individual difference factors. In presenting conclusions about reading
instruction, the seven conclusions focus on which teaching approaches and
strategies are most beneficial for which children at which stages of reading
development.
(DB)
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Keys to
e!
uccessful
Learning:
A National Summit on
Research in Learning
Disabilities
The NICHD Research
Program in Reading
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Disorders and Reading
0 Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
Instruction
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
Points of view or opinions stated in this
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document do not necessarily represent
1
official OERI position or policy.
A Summary of Research
Findings
National Institute of Child Health
& Human Development,
National Institute of Health
BESTCOPY AVAILABLE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Keys to Successfid Learning is made possible by grants to the National Center for Learning Disabilities from
The Educational Foundation of America
The Eisner Foundation
The Emily Hall Tremaine Foundation
with additional support from
The Ford Motor Company
The Henry Ford II Fund
Mr. Theodore J. Forstmann
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development, National Institutes of Health
Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education
IDF,As
that
Work
Keys to Successfid Learning is an ongoing collaboration sponsored by the National Center for Learning Disabilities in partner-
ship with the Office of Special Education Programs (U.S. Department of Education) and the National Institute of Child
Health & Human Development (National Institutes of Health).
The purpose of this initiative is to translate research and policy on learning disabilities into high standards for learning and
achievement in the classroom, and to take action at the local, state and federal levels to ensure that all students, including
those with learning disabilities, are afforded the highest quality education.
Keys to Successfid Learning is supported by a coalition of national and regional funders as well as a broad range of participat-
ing education organizations.
for
The National Center for Learning Disabilities' name and logo are a registered service mark of the National Center
Learning Disabilities Inc. All rights reserved.
The NICHD Research Program in Reading Development,
Reading Disorders and Reading Instruction:
A Summary of Research Findings
G. Reid Lyon, Ph.D.
Chief Child Development and Behavior Branch
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
National Institutes of Health
Background and Purpose
These three questions are: (1) How do children learn to
read? What are the critiCal environmental, experiential,
Learning to read is critical to a child's (and an adult's)
cognitive, linguistic, genetic, neurobiological, and
well-being. The child and adult who cannot read at
a
instructional conditions that foster reading develop-
comfortable level experience significant difficulties mas-
ment? (2) Why do some children and adults have diffi-
tering many types of academic content, are at substan-
culties learning to read? What specific cognitive, lin-
tial risk for failure in school, and are frequently unable
guistic, environmental, and instructional factors impede
to reach their potential in the vocational and occupa-
the development of accurate and fluent reading skills,
tional arena. Unfortunately, the rate of reading failure
and what are the most significant risk factors that pre-
and illiteracy are unacceptably high in the United States.
dispose youngsters to reading failure? (3) How can we
Over 40 percent of fourth grade students performed
help most children learn to read? Specifically, for which
below basic levels on the National Assessment of Edu-
children are which teaching approaches and strategies
cational Progress (NAEP) in both 1994 and 1998. Over
most beneficial at which stages of reading development?
10% of fourth grade children could not even participate
To answer these three questions, the NICHD has
in the NAEP due to severe reading difficulties. More-
developed a research network consisting of 41 research
over, converging evidence from longitudinal, population-
sites in North America, Europe, and Asia to study
based data indicate that at least 17 percent to 20 percent
reading development, reading disorders and other
of children have a significant reading disability A real
learning disabilities, and reading instruction. During
crisis revealed in these statistics is the disproportionate
the past 33 years, NICHD scientists have studied the
representation of children who are poor, racial minori-
reading development of 34,501 children and adults.
ties, and non-native speakers of English. However, it is
Many studies have been devoted to understanding nor-
also noteworthy that large numbers of school-age chil-
mal reading development, and 21,860 good readers
dren from all social classes, races and ethnic groups have
have participated in these investigations, many for as
significant difficulties learning to read. Because reading
long as 12 years. Significant efforts have also been
is so critical to success in our society, reading failure
deployed to understand why many children do not
constitutes not only an educational problem but also
learn to read. Within this context, 12,641 individuals
rises to the level of a major public health problem.
with reading difficulties have been studied, many for
as long as 12 years. In addition, since 1985, the
Since 1965, the National Institute of Child Health and
NICHD has initiated studies designed to develop early
Human Development (NICHD), within the National
identification methods that can recognize those chil-
Institutes of Health (NIH), has conducted and continu-
dren during kindergarten and first-grade who are most
ously supported research efforts to address three funda-
at-risk for reading failure. These studies have provided
mental questions that must be answered if reading fail-
the foundation for several longitudinal prevention and
ure is to be understood and addressed successfully.
rd..4
early intervention projects now underway at 11 sites in
D Reading development requires the acquisition of
the U.S. and Canada. Since 1985, 7,669 children
phonemic awareness and other phonological process-
(including 1,423 good readers) have participated in
ing skills. Specifically, a necessary foundational skill
these reading prevention, early intervention, and reme-
that beginning readers must master is that the words
diation studies, and 3,600 children are currently
and syllables that they hear via oral language are com-
enrolled in longitudinal intervention trials in Texas,
posed of small units of sound, termed phonemes.
Washington, DC, Georgia, Massachusetts, New York,
D Becoming aware of the sound structure (phonemes)
Florida, Colorado, North Carolina, and the state of
within syllables and words is made difficult because
Washington. These studies involve the participation of
unlike writing, when communicating orally, the sepa-
1,012 classroom teachers, working in 266 schools and
rate sounds composing an utterance cannot be "heard"
985 classrooms.
by the ear due to a process termed co-articulation.
Specifically, when producing speech orally, as in saying
The purpose of this report is to synthesize the major
the word cat, only one sound is heard, not three, as in
converging findings that have been obtained by
c/a/t. The vocal apparatus merges the three sounds to
NICHD scientists for each of the three questions that
permit rapid communication, and it is the brain, not
have guided the reading research program. This syn-
the ear that recovers the sound segments from the
thesis is derived from an analysis of over 2,500 publi-
acoustic bundle. In essence, to learn to read, the indi-
cations generated by NICHD scientists since 1965.
vidual must discover that spoken words can be seg-
mented into smaller units of sound, that letters on the
Converging Evidence and Findings
page represent these sounds, and that written words
Relevant to Each Major Research Question
have the same number and sequence of sounds heard
in a spoken word.
Now Do CiVrrea Lamm 2o Rod?
D As noted above, the beginning reader must be able
to translate print to speech. In an alphabetic language,
Evidence and Findings
like English, the individual letters on a page are initial-
D Reading is not a natural process. In contrast to oral
ly abstract and meaningless optical units. These optical
language development, reading does not emerge natu-
shapes must eventually be linked to sounds - the
rally from interactions with parents and other adults,
phonemes discussed above. In essence, the beginning
even in print-rich environments. For most children,
reader must learn the connections between the 26 let-
reading requires systematic and explicit instruction,
ters of the alphabet and the approximately 44 English-
although the degree of explicitness, directiveness, inten-
language phonemes. The understanding that written
sity and duration of instruction requires developing spe-
spellings systematically represent the phonemes of spo-
cific reading components that would vary across children.
ken words is termed "the alphabetic principle" and is
D Learning to read is a relatively lengthy process that
absolutely necessary for the development of accurate
begins very early in children's development and sub-
and rapid decoding and word reading skills. The devel-
stantially before they enter formal schooling. There is a
opment of sound-symbol relationships is also frequent-
strong and critical relationship between the amount
ly termed "phonics."
and quality of early language and literacy interactions
D Although the development of phoneme awareness
and experiences and the acquisition of the linguistic
and the alphabetic principle are necessary to learn to
skills necessary for reading. Moreover, frequent lan-
read, these skills, in and of themselves, are not suffi-
guage and literacy interactions from birth onward
cient. Specifically, in order for the novice reader to begin
serve to aid in the development of oral vocabulary, an
to devote more attention and memory capacity to the
awareness of print and literacy concepts, and an
text that is being read for strong comprehension to
understanding of the goals of reading. Exposure to oral
occur, phonological and decoding skills must be applied
reading and language play (e.g., rhyming) has been
accurately, fluently and automatically. Laborious appli-
found to serve a foundational role in the development
cation of decoding and word recognition skills while
of phonemic awareness.
reading text reduces attentional and memory resources,
5
thus impeding reading comprehension.
longitudinal and epidemiological studies show that
as
many girls as boys have difficulties learning to read.
The ability to understand what has been read
appears
D
to be based on several factors. Children who compre-
Reading disabilities typically persist throughout
D
hend well are able to activate their relevant background
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Difficulties
knowledge when reading
they can relate what has
learning to read do not reflect a transient developmen-
been read to their own experiences and background
tal lag. NICHD longitudinal studies indicate that of
knowledge. Strong comprehension abilities are clearly
children who are reading disabled in the third grade,
related to oral language comprehension, which like
74 percent remain disabled at the end of high school.
reading comprehension is also critically dependent on
Distinguishing between disabled readers with an IQ-
the acquisition of a robust oral vocabulary. Individual
reading achievement discrepancy and those without
a
differences in reading comprehension also vary with the
discrepancy reflects an invalid practice at the beginning
reader's ability to actively summarize, clarify, and pre-
stages of reading. Specifically, children with and without
dict while reading and the ability to employ syntactical
a discrepancy do not differ in the information process-
conventions to enhance comprehension.
ing skills (phonological and orthographic coding) that
The development of phoneme awareness, the alpha-
are necessary for the accurate and rapid reading of single
D
betic principle, word reading accuracy and fluency,
words. Likewise, genetic-and neurophysiological (func-
reading vocabulary, and active reading comprehension
tional MRI) studies have not indicated differential eti-
strategies are all necessary, but not sufficient in and of
ologies for reading disabled children with and without
themselves, to produce robust reading capabilities.
discrepancies. Converging data from several NICHD
These reading elements or components must be exquis-
sites also indicates that the presence and magnitude of
itely integrated via informed instruction and practice.
IQ-reading achievement discrepancies are not related
significantly to a child's response to intervention.
Opportunities to learn to read and to practice the
D
application of reading skills is essential to developing
Children with reading disabilities differ from one
D
accuracy and fluency and a strong sight word vocabu-
another and from other good readers along a continu-
lary. In turn, reading practice serves as a major factor
ous distribution, and do not aggregate together in a
in the continued development of oral vocabulary, par-
distinct "hump" at the tail of the distribution. Reading
ticularly as children move past the third grade.
disabilities reflect dimensional rather than categorical
individual differences.
Why Do Some Children and Adults Have
Difficulties Learning to Read?
Entivonntenftd, laperrenVad, and kdluldnaD IlgeTenze Paden
Children most at-risk for reading failure are those
Elfidenee and Finahgs
D
who enter school with limited exposure to the English
language and who have little prior understanding of
Prevalence, Developmental Course, and Psychometric
concepts related to phonemic sensitivity, letter knowl-
Characteristics
edge, print awareness, the purposes of reading, and
NICHD population-based, epidemiological longitudi-
oral language and verbal skills, including vocabulary.
nal studies indicate that at least 17 percent to 20 percent
Children raised in poverty, youngsters with limited
of the nation's population displays a reading disability.
proficiency in English, children with speech and hear-
Thus, at least 10 million children, or 1 child in 5 will
ing impairments, and children from homes where the
experience significant difficulties learning to read well
parent's or caretaker's reading levels are low are relative-
enough to utilize reading to learn and for enjoyment.
ly predisposed to difficulties learning to read. Likewise,
Non-NICHD prevalence studies and assessments (e.g.,
youngsters with sub-average intellectual capabilities
NAEP) place reading failure at higher levels ranging
frequently manifest greater difficulties in reading
com-
from 20 percent in some states to 59 percent in others.
prehension.
While public schools identify approximately four
D
The most frequent characteristic observed among
D
times as many boys as girls as reading disabled, NICHD
children and adults with reading disabilities is
a slow,
despite difficulties. Unfortunately, little is specifically
labored approach to decoding or "sounding-out"
known about the exact timing and course of motiva-
unknown or unfamiliar words and frequent misidenti-
tional influences in reading development.
fication of familiar words. Oral reading is hesitant and
characterized by frequent starts and stops and multiple
There is strong converging evidence for a genetic
D
mispronunciations.
cause of some types of reading disability with deficits
in phonemic awareness being the greatest hereditary
One of the most powerful predictors of reading
D
factor. Family history is one of the most important risk
comprehension abilities is the speed and accuracy of
factors, with 23 to as much as 65 percent of children
reading single words. Likewise, one of the most power-
who have a parent with reading disability having the
ful predictors of speed and accuracy in reading single
same difficulties. A rate among siblings of affected per-
words is the strength of phonemic awareness skill
sons of approximately 40 percent and among parents
development.
ranging from 27 to 49 percent provides opportunities
In contrast to good readers who have discovered that
D
for early identification.
letters and letter patterns represent segmented units of
Converging evidence suggests that at least one type
sound (phonemes), poor readers have substantial diffi-
D
of reading disability can be linked to the HLA region
culty developing this principle. As noted in the discus-
of chromosome 6 reflecting a possible association with
sion of reading development, the major factor imped-
autoimmune disorders. Evidence obtained from twin
ing the development of the alphabetic principle and
and kindred siblings with severe deficits in reading per-
thus decoding and word reading skills is a lack of facil-
formance support a Quantitative Trait Locus on chro-
ity in phonemic awareness.
mosome 6. Chromosome 15 has recently been linked
Phonemic awareness skills assessed in kindergarten,
D
to individual differences in word reading skills.
in combination with assessment of the child's ability to
1) Phonemic awareness and word reading deficits can
provide letter and number names and letter sounds,
also result from a lack of oral language and literacy
are strong predictors of difficulties learning to read.
exposure and interactions following birth and through
Deficits in phoneme awareness skills impact the ability
the preschool years. If children are not provided
to develop accurate and fluent word reading capabili-
opportunities to listen to and interact with language in
ties which significantly degrade comprehension of
multiple contexts, their background knowledge about
what has been read.
sounds, print concepts, and vocabulary concepts will
In addition to being negatively affected by phono-
D
be negatively affected. -Whether or not limited oral lan-
logical and word level deficits, reading comprehension
guage exposure is reflected in differences in neural
is impeded by, among other factors: (1) vocabulary
development during the early years is not yet known.
deficits; (2) inadequate background knowledge relevant
A range of neurobiological investigations employing
to the information presented in text; (3) lack of famil-
D
post-mortem brain specimens, brain morphometry,
iarity with semantic and syntactic structures that can
functional brain imaging, and electrophysiology sug-
be employed to predict and better understand word
gests there are differences in the temporo-parieto-
and grammatical relationships; (4) lack of knowledge
occipital neural regions between some individuals with
about different writing conventions that are employed
reading disability and those who are not reading-
by the author to achieve different purposes via text
impaired. Additional studies suggest differences in the
(humor, explanation, dialogue, etc.); (5) lack of verbal
striate or extrastriate cortex, converging with a large
reasoning ability which enables the reader to "read
body of literature describing anatomical lesions in pos-
between the lines"; and (6) the ability to remember
terior brain regions in acquired alexia, most promi-
and/or recall verbal information.
nently located in the angular gyrus.
Motivational factors are clearly relevant to reading
D
development and reading disorders, given that the
improvement a disabled reader may make in learning
to read is highly related to their willingness to persist
7
NICHD and substantial non-NICHD research does
How Can We Help Most Children Learn
not support the claim that the use of context is a proxy
to Read?
for applying decoding strategies to unknown or
Specifically, for Which Children Are Which Teaching
unfamilar words. To guess the pronunciation of words
from context, the context must predict the words. But
Approaches and Strategies Most Beneficial at Which Stages
the most important words for text
content words
of Reading Development?
can be predicted only 10 to 20 per-
comprehension
cent of the time. Instead, the strategy of choice among
Evidence and Findings
well developing good readers is to decode letters to
I A massive effort must be undertaken to inform par-
sound in an increasingly complete and accurate man-
ents and caretakers of the importance of providing oral
ner, which is dependent upon robust development of
language and literacy experiences from the first days of
phonemic and phonics skills.
to engage children in playing with language
life
0 Without a doubt, early identification and interven
through nursery rhymes, storybooks, and as they
tion is essential to maximizing treatment success in
mature, early writing activities. Parents and caretakers
children who are at risk for reading failure. NICHD
must become intimately aware of the importance of
studies have led to the development of accurate and
vocabulary development and must interact verbally
with their children to enhance verbal reasoning,
reliable identification procedures that are linked to pre-
vention programs. NICHD studies have clearly demon-
semantic, and syntactical abilities.
strated that the intensity and duration of reading inter-
II Reading out loud to children is a proven activity for
ventions must increase exponentially as children get
developing vocabulary and language expansion charac-
older just to achieve the same degree of improvement
teristics, and plays an important role in developing
attainable during kindergarten and the first grade.
receptive and expressive language skills. Reading out
0 One factor that impedes effective instruction with
loud to children can also help to enhance children's
children at risk for reading failure is current teacher
background knowledge of new concepts that will
appear in both oral and written language.
preparation practices. Many teachers have not had the
opportunity to develop basic knowledge about the
0 NICHD prevention and early intervention studies
structure of the English language, reading develop-
continue to provide converging evidence on the
ment, and the nature of reading difficulties. Major
importance of developing accurate and fluent word
efforts must be undertaken to ensure that colleges of
reading skills, given the significant importance of such
education develop preparation programs to foster the
skills in developing reading comprehension abilities.
necessary content and pedagogical expertise at both
P. Prevention and early intervention studies in
preservice and inservice levels.
Tallahassee, Gainesville, Syracuse, Albany, Houston,
Seattle, and Washington, DC are providing converging
evidence that for those children who are at risk for
reading failure, highly direct and systematic instruction
to develop phoneme awareness and phonics skills,
reading fluency and automaticity, and reading compre-
hension strategies within a literature-rich environment
will be required to obtain maximum gains. It is also
imperative that each of these reading components be
taught within an integrated context and that ample
practice in reading familiar material be afforded to
enhance fluency and automaticity. Likewise, the most
effective interventions provide ample opportunities to
read and discuss authentic literature.
National Center for Learning Disabilities
Keys to Successfe Learning
A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities
The National Center for Learning Disabilities
New York, NY 10016
Suite 1401
381 Park Avenue South
www.ncld.org
IC
U.S. Department of Education
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI)
National Library of Education (NLE)
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)
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