ERIC ED423674: An Investigation of Student Opinions and Educational Experiences in Spanish for the Heritage Speakers at Arizona State University and the University of Arizona.

20 Pages·1998·0.3 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
FL 025 475
ED 423 674
AUTHOR
Reber, Theresa; Geeslin, Kimberly
An Investigation of Student Opinions and Educational
TITLE
Experiences in Spanish for the Heritage Speakers at Arizona
State University and the University of Arizona.
PUB DATE
1998-00-00
NOTE 19p.; For complete volume of working papers, see FL 025 473.
PUB TYPE
Journal Articles (080) Reports
Research (143)
--
Tests/Questionnaires (160)
JOURNAL CIT Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education; v3 n2 p33-50 Spr
1998
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*College Second Language Programs; College Students;
*Heritage Education; Higher Education; Language Research;
Language Role; Language Usage; Questionnaires; Second
Language Instruction; Second Languages; *Spanish; Student
Attitudes; *Student Experience
*Arizona State University; *University of Arizona
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
A study examined university students' beliefs about the
availability and content of Spanish courses designed for heritage speakers.
Subjects were 50 students in three classes at Arizona State University and
the University of Arizona, who were administered a questionnaire on student
demographics, prior Spanish language instruction or instruction in Spanish,
and attitudes about SHS (Spanish for Heritage Seakers) offerings, course
level, desired course content, and what they would change or add to the
existing program. Most of the respondents were born in the United States, and
most learned English literacy first. Eighty percent attended American public
schools, but few spoke English before entering the system, and only nine
respondents received any SHS instruction. Two-thirds felt SHS instruction
should be offered as early as possible in the educational experience; some
feared this might interfere with acquisition of English. Grammar was clearly
the main area of student interest, followed by formal language usage. Culture
and history were also considered important. Topics considered to be of minor
importance included art, literature, politics, and Chicano language.
(Contains 32 references and the questionnaire) .
(MSE)
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An Investigation of Student Opinions ana Lducational Experiences
in Spanish for Heritage Speakers at Arizona State University and
the University of Arizona
THERESA REBER
KIMBERLY GEESLIN
While many studies have looked
at language programs which serve
to find documen-
heritage speakers of that language, it is less common
tation of the opinions of the students in those programs. The research
on attitudes of this population often investigates opinions toward lan-
guage varieties and their speakers. The purpose of this study is to ex-
amine students' beliefs regarding educational options for Spanish for
Heritage Speakers (SHS). This is especially important since a program
which concurs with the perceived needs of students can best serve that
population. One of the most frequently discussed questions in regards
to SHS instruction
is when such courses should be offered.
is
There
disagreement about the appropriate level as well as the amount of time
to such courses. Secondly, many curriculum
which should be devoted
developers have debated the content of these courses. They often refer
to regional varieties spo-
to teaching "standard" language as opposed
ken in the area of instruction. This paper will first discuss these two is-
to both research and popular opinion.
sues in general with reference
is a discussion of the study we conducted
Following that brief outline
through questionnaires at Arizona State University and the University
of Arizona. The paper concludes with a discussion of the results we ob-
tained.
INTRODUCTION
While many studies have looked at language programs which serve
heritage speakers of that language, it is less common to find documentation
of the opinions of the students in those programs. The research on attitudes
of this population often investigates opinions toward language varieties and
their speakers (Ornstein, 1982; Galindo, 1995). The purpose of this study was
to examine students' beliefs regarding educational options for Spanish for
Heritage Speakers (SHS). This is especially important since a program which
concurs with the perceived needs of students can best serve that population.
One of the most frequently discussed questions in regards to SHS instruction
is when such courses should be offered. There is disagreement about the ap-
propriate level as well as the amount of time which should be devoted to
such courses. Secondly, many curriculum developers have debated the con-
tent of these courses. They often refer to teaching "standard" language as op-
posed to regional varieties spoken in the area of instruction. This paper will
both
with
two general
issues
discuss
first
these
to
in
reference
34 Texas Papers in Foreign Langauge Education
research and popular opinion. Fol-
ish spoken in the student's commu-
lowing that brief outline is a discus-
nity (Rodriguez Pino & Villa, 1994;
of the
study we conducted
sion
Valdés-Fallis,
the
and
1978)
through questionnaires at Arizona
approach" which
"comprehensive
State University and the University
aims to increase the students' lan-
of Arizona. The paper concludes
guage skills through literacy (Valdés,
with a discussion of the results we
Lozano, & Garcia-Moya, 1981).
obtained.
The traditional approach for
teaching rural nonstandard speakers
in the Spanish speaking world has
HISTORY OF SHS COURSES
been the
Spanish for heritage speakers
limited
normative
ap-
(SHS) courses have seen immense
proach (Merino & Samaniego, 1993;
growth over the past twenty years as
Valdés-Fallis, 1978). In this approach,
the numbers of Spanish speakers en-
the most common features of non-
rolled in schools in the United States
standard dialect are chosen and then
have greatly increased (Merino &
contrasted with the standard forms,
Samaniego, 1993; Rodriguez Pino &
and oral and written exercises em-
Villa, 1994). SHS courses differ from
phasizing their use are provided for
traditional Spanish language courses
practice. Errors are most commonly
in that in regular language courses,
made up of dialectal differences that
the goal is language acquisition. In
are not considered to be part of the
SHS courses, the goal is to refine al-
systematic dialect variation of edu-
ready existing language
In
skills.
cated native speakers in that region.
elementary schools, the teaching of
From
the
SHS
1945-1960
SHS focuses primarily on the acqui-
course at New Mexico State Univer-
sition of a child's first language as an
sity (NMSU) was titled "Corrective
academic language. English as a sec-
Spanish," and the course description
ond language is also introduced as
that
stated
this
was
course
for
part of the instruction in Spanish
"Spanish American students only.
(Cummins, 1981; Merino, Trueba, &
Especially designed for those who
Samaniego, 1993). SHS in secondary
speak Spanish, but who need drills
schools has traditionally been con-
in grammar, reading and diction t o
sidered to be an extension of teach-
to N e w
correct
errors
common
ing Spanish
as foreign
language
Mexican Spanish." In 1962 the title
(Valdés-Fallis, 1974). Often courses
changed to "Remedial Spanish," and
in at least one other content area
the description remained the same
(other than formal language) of the
but dropped the part about correcting
"required curriculum, anthropology,
1968 the
errors.
In
title
course
government or multicultural educa-
changed to "Spanish
for Spanish
tion"
are
also
(Merino,
offered
Speaking Students," and the descrip-
Trueba, & Samaniego,
1993). The
tion read "For Spanish speaking stu-
two main approaches with older
dents only. Exercises in grammar,
learners at high school and college
speech correction and vocabulary
levels are "the limited normative
building." Finally in 1975, "speech
approach" which centers on correct-
correction" was dropped from the
ing "errors" in the variety of Span-
course description (Rodriguez Pino
3
35
Student Opinions on Spanish for Heritage Speakers Program
ance rather than the correctness of
1994). The book Espanol
& Villa,
the form being used. Further, it at-
para el Bilingiie
(Barker, 1972) was
tempts to create a linguistic aware-
developed in the United States as a
ness that helps students recognize
result of the limited normative ap-
formal levels of Spanish while si-
proach in the attempt to assist the
multaneously introducing
instruc-
Heritage speaker of Spanish (HS) in
tion in the four skills and grammar.
learning "correct" Spanish. Barker's
instruction
approach suggested direct error cor-
generally de-
This
is
signed to meet the specific needs of
rection and emphasized that dialec-
tal differences are structures to be
the United
States
Hispanics
in
avoided. This approach seemed to
(Hidalgo, 1993).
that
(1990) notes
separate HS students from their own
al-
Faltis
though the limited normative and
Spanish-speaking communities as it
often tended to lessen the value of
differ
comprehensive
approaches
significantly, both encourage learn-
their parents' language (Faltis, 1984).
ing about the language before using
As a result of Labov's study of
it for communicative purposes and
black English varieties in the United
States (1972) and of Chicano lin-
both are based on a teacher-centered
knowledge base. Faltis (1990) sug-
guists' descriptions of Chicano Span-
ests that the student should have
ish (Sanchez, 1972), the comprehen-
an active role in the learning process
introduced
approach
sive
was
rather than a passive role as is im-
(Valdés-Fallis, 1974). This approach
plied in teacher-centered courses (see
uses the standard variety of Spanish
as the medium of instruction and of
also Faltis & DeVillar, 1993).
Many public schools and uni-
sharing ideas about topics of interest
versities cannot afford to offer SHS
to the students (Faltis & DeVillar,
courses or lack the specialized per-
1993). It is suggested that if bilingual
sonnel to offer them. In 1993, SHS
students are provided with instruc-
courses could be found at Florida In-
tion on skills and practice in speak-
Arizona
ing, reading, and writing about a va-
University,
ternational
riety of topics, they will develop
State University, The University of
of New
Arizona, The University
standard Spanish. Textbooks have
Mexico, New Mexico State Univer-
been written in accordance with the
sity, and The University of Texas at
comprehensive approach for use in
El Paso (Hidalgo, 1993), and it
to promote
is
SHS courses
literacy
likely that SHS courses are offered
skills in standard Spanish by provid-
now at other institutions.
ing opportunities to speak, read, and
write about topics of interest to stu-
& Teschner,
CONTENT OF SHS COURSES
dents
(Valdés-Fallis
It is probable that students in
1984; Valdés, Hannum & Teschner,
SHS courses at universities will re-
1982). The comprehensive approach
ceive instruction based on the com-
attempts to extend students' skills in
Spanish in a natural way and is
prehensive approach (Hidalgo, 1993).
In addition to formal language in-
based on Krashen's (1981) theory of
struction and the four skills, activi-
second language acquisition which
ties in the SHS classroom should be
emphasizes the content of the utter-
4
36
Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education
relevant to the students' interests
ability in Spanish. Once in the SHS
and goals and to life in their Spanish
courses, students are grouped accord-
speaking
communities
(Sanchez,
ing to their needs, and courses are
1981). Once the goals and objectives
suggested
for
group
each
for SHS courses are established, text-
(D'Ambruoso,
are
Students
1993).
books and approaches used in these
generally satisfied with the realiza-
courses should be selected to reflect
that they are refining
tion
their
those goals and to encourage
knowledge of Spanish similarly to
at-
tainment of them. Sanchez (1981)
how they refine their English skills.
points out that SHS courses may be
SHS courses help students appreciate
the only places where Hispanic stu-
their language and culture as part of
dents can go to discuss topics that
their identity, and this helps stu-
standard university courses never
dents develop positive self-esteem
address.
(D'Ambruoso, 1993). Some research-
One important variable in de-
ers even believe
that without
a
termining student needs in SHS
command of one's own language,
courses is when they first received
ethnic identity and the feeling of be-
instruction in Spanish geared to-
longing to a group are virtually im-
wards HS's. Although we believe
possible (Trueba, 1993).
that bilingual education is especially
important at all levels of education,
STANDARD LANGUAGE
reality
the
of
American
public
While it is clear that SHS pro-
schools does not reflect this. If stu-
grams and funding have grown in
dents have received adequate in-
recent years, there is still a great un-
struction at earlier levels, they may
certainty about what the curriculum
be more interested in learning his-
for these programs should include.
torical and cultural aspects of Span-
One current topic of discussion is
ish speaking communities, whereas
whether 'standard' language or
re-
if they have not received language
gional varieties should be taught.
instruction they may be more likely
Some activists have charged that ne-
to expect to learn basic language
glecting the regional variety adds to
skills. Because of this, it will be in-
its already diminished status. Since
teresting to see if our study reveals
both popular belief and many
aca-
different foci as a result of prior in-
demics support the instruction of
struction and educational opportu-
'standard' language in SHS classes, it
nities.
is important to evaluate how this
distinction arose. After a discussion
of how
PLACEMENT IN SHS COURSES
attitudes
towards
Latin
According
D'Ambruoso
to
American Spanish as non-standard
in
universities,
Heritage
(1993),
arose, we will evaluate what differ-
speakers of Spanish are not auto-
ences actually exist. The discussion
matically placed in SHS courses be-
will focus on Mexico and Mexican-
cause they can understand and speak
American Spanish when possible
a little Spanish or because they have
since this is relevant for the popula-
a Spanish name. These
students
tion which we surveyed. Not only
should exhibit advanced linguistic
are
the
features
of
Mexican-
5
Student Opinions on Spanish for Heritage Speakers Program
37
American Spanish
important but
desire to establish themselves as the
also the definition of the "Standard"
upper class in the New World, set-
to which it is being compared will be
tlers frequently imposed the same
Finally,
investigated.
this
section
rigid standards of language in order
concludes with a discussion of the
to assert their position of power.
implications of these differences on
This was reinforced by the then
college teaching of Spanish to Na-
popular belief that Spanish was the
by those who
tive Speakers.
language
spoken
"conquered, read and believed in
HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF
God" (Hidalgo, 1990). Thus, language
ATTITUDINAL DIFFERENCES
was a tool for social power and the
Although theoretical linguists
language spoken in Latin America
such as Chomsky base their work on
was nearly identical to and certainly
the linguistic knowledge of the ideal
as "proper" as that spoken in Spain.
speaker in a homogeneous speech
Despite the fact that there was
have
community,
sociolinguists
little actual difference in the lan-
shown that for every language there
guages spoken on the two conti-
are many speech communities, none
nents, attitudes of those in Spain
of which
truly homogeneous
is
were
often
disparaging
towards
(Wolfram,
Within
speech
those who lived in the less civilized
1991).
groups, speakers may vary their lan-
New World. This is shown in the
guage use according to certain per-
quotation below:
sonal features such as gender and
"It has been assured for centu-
social class as well as to certain con-
ries that the language of peasants,
textual features such as the formality
common persons or the vulgo is
of the situation. Since the recogni-
corrupted language. Because it was
tion of such variation, many re-
also assumed that the Conquest was
searchers have attempted to docu-
an enterprise undertaken by the
ment the varieties of Spanish spo-
vulgo (peasants,
soldiers,
sailors),
ken in Latin America and evaluate
the ideas that there were many Latin
whether they are really so different
American vulgar dialects
- similar to
from the Castilian Spanish of Spain.
the vernaculars spoken in the Ro-
The
investigation
Latin
man Empire - circulated widely in
of
American Spanish dates back to the
Spain" (Hidalgo, 1990, p. 52)
conquistadors of the
1500's. Since
Thus, the attitude that there
these
brought
explorers
Spanish
exists "standard" Spanish and sub-
with them to the new world, they
standard Spanish is not a new one.
for determining
were responsible
Latin
America
finds itself
in
a
the language base in Latin America.
strange position of wanting to main-
tain the tradition of pure written
Hidalgo (1990) points out that since
there was a high proportion of bu-
Spanish while struggling to show its
reaucrats and nobles included in the
independence
through
empower-
colonizing groups, they most likely
ment of its own varieties. The desire
brought a language base very similar
to maintain the standard form of the
to that considered 'standard' on the
language is seen in the establish-
ment of the Academies in Latin
Iberian Peninsula. In fact, due to the
6
38
Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education
America which are modeled after
fication of consonant clusters (doctor
Spain's Royal Academy. As a result
as /dotor/). Both reductions and
of these academies, each country
simplifications are found in many
does have certain features which are
informal varieties.
specific to that area while maintain-
There are also examples in the
ing the basic features common to all
works cited above of morphological
Spanish speakers. More importantly,
variation. Among these is the addi-
while there are clear differences be-
tion of the letter -s which is gener-
tween Latin American Spanish and
ally associated with the second per-
Castilian Spanish, it is also impor-
son singular form, to the second per-
tant to note that educated people
son singular form in the preterit
from all Spanish speaking commu-
where it is not necessary (i.e. dijistes
nities have many characteristics in
vs. dijiste 'you said' ). This shows a
common and do not differ so much
trend for generalization which is
from each other as they do from the
common in nearly
all
languages.
lower class in each of their respec-
Another characteristic is the substi-
tution of the letter n for the letter
tive countries (Lope Blanche, 1983).
'm' in the first person plural forms
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
of the imperfect tense. This change is
also intuitive since the pronoun for
MEXICAN-AMERICAN SPANISH
As shown above, all Spanish
the first person plural is nos.
speaking countries have more in
variation
Syntactic
also
is
common with each other than they
found in Mexican-American Span-
have significant
ish, although less frequently than
differences. Since
this is the case, it is important to ask
other types of variation. One exam-
the question: Is there really any dif-
ple of language change in progress is
ference at all? The purpose of this
that Chicano Spanish is shifting the
section is to discuss the actual fea-
way in which it distinguishes its two
tures which characterize Chicano
verbs which mean 'to be' (ser and
Spanish because there are in fact cer-
estar). What is interesting about this
tain variations which do describe
is that it is estar that is being used
speech in the Southwest.
more frequently than ser. If influ-
terms
In
phonological
of
ence of English were responsible for
variation, the characteristic which
this change it would be more logical
best characterizes Latin American
that ser be the more popular form
Spanish is the change from pronun-
since it is more similar in form to
ciation of /c,z/ as /0/ to /s/. This,
English. This is seen in the forms 'is'
however, is not particular to Mexi-
and es which both have the same
can-American
Spanish.
meaning. This similarity has been
In
fact,
nearly all Spanish speakers in the
used to explain why second language
Americas share this feature. Hidalgo
speakers of Spanish transfer English
(1987) and Sanchez (1983) cite other
and thus overgeneralize the form
ser to a number of inappropriate
characteristics as regional variations
such as reduction
of diphthongs
contexts at early stages of develop-
(pues as /pos/), diphthongization of
ment (Van Patten, 1987).
hiatos (dia as /dja/), and the simpli-
Student Opinions on Spanish for Heritage Speakers Program
39
A final
variation
criticize the instruction of standard
of
type
which can characterize many differ-
varieties in SHS classes need to de-
of Spanish
fine standard before their recom-
ent varieties
lexical
is
variation. Due to the influence of
mendations are meaningful. One
Native peoples, the Spanish of Latin
reason that standard is so difficult to
includes
many
words
America
define is that it is often compared to
which come from native languages
or defined with respect to other va-
like Nahuatl spoken by the Aztecs.
rieties. In fact one of the most com-
Many plants, vegetables and food
monly perceived definitions of stan-
dard is the variety of the region
items have different names in many
countries. One example of a word
which has risen to a position of pres-
tige as a result of trivial linguistic
Nahuatl
which
comes
from
is
'chocolate.' Clearly this word has
differences but significant power is-
made its way into many regions and
sues. One difficulty with this is that
many languages other than Spanish
the differences between certain va-
and is not particular to Mexico.
rieties of one language such as Chi-
Another
nese are greater than the differences
source
lexical
of
variation is the contact that Mexi-
between
like
certain languages
can-American speakers of Spanish
Swedish and Danish which are con-
have with English and American
sidered to be different
languages
culture. One example of this type of
(Hidalgo, 1987). Thus, we lack a con-
influence is the addition of the word
crete definition for variety and this
does not help to define what stan-
'lonche' to the Spanish lexicon. This
is not a simple borrowing, nor is it
dard language is.
A second problem with the
evidence of the replacement of the
Spanish word by an English one
above definition of standard is that,
since the original word for 'lunch' in
in the case of Spanish, the definition
Spanish, 'almuerzo', can be used to
of standard may be more related to
refer to a large mid-day meal. Al-
to regional
economic status than
though English does influence some
variables. This means that educators
need to be clear about whether it is
aspects of Chicano Spanish, it is im-
portant to note that many of the
the region or the social class that is
variations previously described can
stigmatized. Furthermore, the defi-
be explained by processes such as
nition of standard needs to be ex-
generalization and reduction which
plicit for each program which states
are common in many languages and
this as one of its goals. In addition,
curriculum developers need to be
in Spanish where there is no contact
aware of the judgments they are
with other languages.
making when they use the term
and Rodman
standard. Fromkin
DEFINING STANDARD
Given the historical origin of
Standard American
define
(1983)
language attitudes, and the fact that
English as an idealized variety. They
variation
the
Chicano
found
in
say, "Nobody speaks this dialect, and
if somebody did we wouldn't know
Spanish is not as great as its similari-
it is clear
ties with other varieties,
it because Standard American Eng-
that both those who support and
lish isn't defined precisely" (p. 251).
8
40
Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education
As with English, there is no clear
that the standard language be used
definition of standard and so each
in a variety of ways which may be
curriculum plan which includes this
more beneficial.
notion
must
One such
be
specifically
ex-
sup-
suggestion,
plained.
ported for Black students by linguists
such as Labov, Shuy and Wolfram,
is the use of bidialectal education.
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS
Despite the fact that standard
Under this type of curriculum, both
is not well defined, it is a cetitral is-
the standard variety and the regional
sue for educators. The sociolinguistic
variety are used in class. The ration-
meaning behind this term is lan-
ale for this type of approach is simi-
guage which
not
stigmatized.
lar to that which supports Ll literacy
is
Thus, teaching a standard variety is
for children: It is harmful to halt de-
based on the acknowledgment that
velopment by imposing a new way
there are attitudes associated with
of
communicating
students
and
certain
salient
language
features.
benefit from continued use of their
Among those who support
the
native tongue while they work to
teaching of a standard variety are
add a second language/variety. Hi-
those
who
standard
that
claim
dalgo describes this approach by say-
speech is useful to improve a stu-
ing that "students are made aware of
dent's chances at occupational and
style and register
appropriateness
eneral success. Some who make
and when they begin to write they
this claim take the traditional view
are taught which forms are peculiar
that they need to purge students of
to casual rapid speech and which are
varieties which are not standard.
accepted in writing." (p. 381). This
This is justified by claiming that the
approach does not discourage com-
the common
prestige
variety
munication while it does enhance
is
communicational vehicle for art, lit-
the development of the more formal
erature, science and technology. This
speech norms.
group claims that non-standard va-
Other
of
characteristics
rieties have restricted daily functions
education involve
bidialectal
the
which hinder its use in the fields
content of the courses offered at the
mentioned above (Hidalgo, 1987).
university. In addition to the register
Since the above argument re-
awareness mentioned
stu-
above,
sembles the debate against bilingual
dents are taught the origins of the
this opinion may not
education,
regional differences and made aware
serve the Hispanic population as it
of which regional differences are ac-
fact, Ammon
should.
In
cepted by educated speakers in that
(1977)
showed that for Swabian speakers
area. This is important because it ac-
(in southeast Germany), the imposi-
knowledges both social class and re-
tion of the standard variety and a to-
gion and does not confound the two.
tal disregard for the home variety is
Hidalgo (1987) also suggests that
more
economically
academically,
merely increasing the literacy level
and
detrimental
psychologically
of students and maintaining a con-
than it
is beneficial. Nevertheless,
servative mode of speech will cause
there are others who have suggested
students to learn how to use new
9
Student Opinions on Spanish for Heritage Speakers Program
41
variations without harming their
students are already familiar. In con-
trast with the "eradication" view,
own progress linguistically and psy-
chologically. She suggests that a text-
this type of approach is more in tune
with research on bilingual educa-
oriented class will be especially bene-
tion.
ficial for these reasons.
One other recommendation is
especially relevant in light of the fea-
THE STUDY
tures of Chicano Spanish described
The purpose of our study was
to investigate student opinions re-
above. That is, it is not necessary to
all of the differences dis-
garding the two issues
include
discussed
cussed above in the curriculum. For
above: availability of SHS courses
with
and their content. The questionnaire
the
exception
example,
of
used to illicit information from stu-
pointing out which phonological pe-
dents is included in the appendix.
culiarities create problems for spell-
The first questions ask for informa-
ing, pronunciation should not be the
key focus of the class. This seems
tion such as gender, age, first lan-
valid since in English, pronuncia-
guage and place of birth. The next
tion is usually considered regional
group of questions established from
what generation
and it is morphological information
the
speakers
of
which is more indicative of social
Spanish derived and how many of
variables. In addition, it is not neces-
their family members spoke Spanish
sary to focus on lexical items since
to them. Finally, a series of questions
according to Hidalgo "lexical items
aimed at determining what the sub-
prior experience with SHS
may create confusion but don't ne-
jects'
courses had been was included.
cessitate focus since they are rarely
stigmatized" (p. 389). Although we
These questions asked subjects to tell
are aware of some
when they had received instruction
items
lexical
in Spanish, at what levels and for
which are stigmatized (i.e., no más
instead of solo), for the most part
While
which
academic
subjects.
this advice seems sound. Paying less
none of this information is the focus
attention to lexical items frees time
of the study, it is important in order
to focus on morphological varia-
to group subjects and assess similari-
ties. This class of information en-
tions, which are apparently highly
stigmatized and also very important
ables us to generalize among groups
within the students in SHS courses.
for writing.
education, when
It may also help to explain any dis-
Bidialectal
parities in student opinions which
with
conjunction
considered
in
these recommendations, can make
are found.
use of standard language without
The questions which followed
the requirement of a universal defi- were aimed at attaining information
relevant to the two areas of interest
nition. It is also able to account for
both economic and regional varia-
in this investigation. Not only were
tion. This is because this methodol-
subjects asked to respond to whether
they felt SHS courses should be of-
ogy would focus on certain aspects of
fered, they were also asked to re-
standard language while encourag-
ing use of the variety with which
spond to questions about the level at
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