ERIC ED413124: Ethical Frameworks, Moral Practices and Outdoor Education.

20 Pages·1996·0.42 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
RC 021 208
ED 413 124
Fox, Karen M.; Lautt, Mick
AUTHOR
Ethical Frameworks, Moral Practices and Outdoor Education.
TITLE
1996-00-00
PUB DATE
18p.; In: Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Third
NOTE
Research Symposium Proceedings (3rd, Bradford Woods,
Indiana, January 12-14, 1996); see RC 021 207.
Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)
Information Analyses (070)
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Educational Principles; *Ethics; Foreign Countries; Group
DESCRIPTORS
Dynamics; Moral Development; *Outdoor Education; *Values
Chaos Theory; *Conceptual Frameworks; Environmental Ethic
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
Insights from quantum physics and chaos theory help create
new metaphors about ethical frameworks and moral practices in outdoor
education. The seemingly straightforward concept of values is analogous to
the initial simple nonlinear equation of a fractal. The value claims of
outdoor education--trust, cooperation, environmental awareness,
self-awareness, freedom, justice, community, respect--are often interwoven
within the very structure and outcomes of programs. If there are repeated
iterations of the initial equation (values and value claims), the fractal
shapes of ethical frameworks emerge. Ethical frameworks are complex sets of
value claims, rationales, and rules that guide moral reasoning, decision
making, and behavior. Such complexity implies that various forms, ranging
from experiential activities and artistic creations to scholarly essays and
research, are necessary to explore ethical frameworks and moral practices of
outdoor education. Prominent themes related to outdoor ethical frameworks
(1) outdoor education research focused on individuals and discrete links
are:
(2) prominent scholarship
among attitudes, knowledge, affect, and behavior;
(3) research
about outdoor ethical frameworks is becoming more prominent;
findings on moral development in psychology and education indicate the
(4) moral practices encompass
development of moral reasoning is complex;
relational characteristics: love, friendship, compassion, caring, passion,
(5) spiritual journeys, traditions, and insights are an
and intuition;
important aspect of relating to others; and (6) an individual or group can be
ethical only when there is mutual material interaction and critique.
Understanding the relationships and processes applicable to outdoor values
and ethical frameworks requires embracing their complexity. Continuing with
physics metaphors from field theory, six ways of embracing complexity are
proposed. Contains 124 references.
(SV)
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OUTDOOR EDUCATION
ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS, MORAL PRACTICES AND
Mick Lautt
Karen M. Fox
B.R.S.
Associate Professor
University of Manitoba
University of Manitoba
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
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BEV COPY AN
LE
18
ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS, MORAL PRACTICES AND OUTDOOR EDUCATION
Mick Lautt
Karen M. Fox
B.R.S.
Associate Professor
University of Manitoba
University of Manitoba
Discoveries and insights from quantum physics and chaos theory help create new metaphors about
ethical frameworks and moral practices in outdoor education. Using concepts such as fractals,
fields, and strange attractors, we explore new ways to view research results, scholarly writings,
and creative endeavors related to outdoor education. In addition, we evaluate four themes related
to the present ethical discourse in outdoor education and sketch new directions for moral practice.
KEYWORDS: Ethical frameworks, outdoor education, moral practice, chaos theory, mutual
critique.
ethical frameworks and moral practices in out-
INTRODUCTION
door education.
The image of fractals returned again and
THE FRACTAL NATURE OF ETHICAL
again as we wrestled with the mounds of infor-
FRAMEWORKS, MORAL PRACTICE
mation related to ethical frameworks, moral
AND OUTDOOR EDUCATION
practices and outdoor education. Fractals are
surprisingly simple patterns replicating to pro-
We suggest that the seemingly straightfor-
duce infinite levels of complexity. Shorelines,
ward concept of values is analogous to the ini-
vegetation disbursement, crystal formations, and
tial, simple, non-linear equation of a fractal.
leaf patterns are natural demonstrations of this
Values are ideals, customs or institutions of so-
phenomenon (Figure 1). We discovered that our
ciety toward which individuals or groups have
topicethical frameworks and moral practices
an affective regard, and value claims are state-
of outdoor education followed a similar pattern;
ments about worth (see Table 1). These values
the more we looked, the more complexity and
may be positive, such as freedom or respect, or
details we discovered. Like fractals, the com-
negative such as greed and cruelty. The value
plexity and details began to be the very essence
claims of outdoor education are often inter-
of the beauty, the strength, and the diversity as
woven and implied within the very structure and
well as the challenge. We discovered how diffi-
outcomes of programstrust, cooperation, en-
cult it is not to be certain; how uncomfortable
free-
vironmental awareness, self-awareness,
we were with chaos. We quickly wanted to pro-
dom, justice, character, community, and respect
vide structure and categories to the information.
(Stern & Dietz, 1994).
With time, shifting patterns and shapes emerged
narratives and
The values woven into
from the unending sources of information that
(auto)biographies of naturalists, explorers, ad-
provide initial views of the fractal nature of
venturers, indigenous people (Carson, 1962;
Karen M. Fox, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor with the Recreation Studies Degree Programme and Research Asso-
teaching
ciate at the Health, Leisure, and Human Performance Research Institute at the University of Manitoba. Her
and research focuses on ethical outdoor leadership and followership. Mick Lautt, B. R. S., is a graduate of the Rec-
reation Studies Degree Programme with an expertise in outdoor recreation and education. His professional experi-
trips, and managing university outdoor programs.
ence includes instructing outdoor skills, leading outdoor
3
19
ETHICS & OUTDOOR EDUCATION
Grey Owl, 1975; Lopez, 1986; Muir, 1979)
provide the basic sustenance for moral dis-
education.
course and practice in outdoor
Values are often implied in the stories about
people, expeditions, events, and places or
the directions to complete an outdoor skill
or task. The guideposts and
motivating
forces behind Kurt Hahn's work include
growth, character, conflict resolution, and
(Richards,
interactions
social
positive
1990). Early childhood experiences with the
outdoors or moral practice emerge as vital
elements in developing life commitments to
natural environment (Bennis,
1989;
the
Beringer, 1995; Cohen & Horm-Wingerd,
1986;
Miles,
Harvey,
1989-90;
1993;
Palmer, 1993; Sebba, 1991). Climbing in-
structions or raft guiding procedures rest on
assumptions that people should change the
little as possible
natural environment as
(Long, 1993; McGinnis, 1981). The com-
recreation,
mon ground between outdoor
outdoor education, environmental education
and experiential education can be found in a
value base of respect, social responsibility,
self-actualization, justice, and freedom for
all living beings and the Earth. Furthermore,
these values guide the search for relevant
behaviours
appropriate
and
knowledge
(Casken, 1992; Tellnes, 1993). For example,
the values of respecting the Earth and free-
dom for individuals have underpinned our
efforts to increase the use of appropriate
technology and minimum impact tech-
niques, preserve wildlands, and design in-
programs
education
outdoor
clusive
(Morgan, 1993; Schleien & McAvoy, 1989).
Figure I. Example of natural fractal: fern leaves.
If there are repeated iterations of the
This computer-generated fern is the product of Mi-
chael Barnsley's Chaos Game. Random iterations
initial equation (values and value claims),
of a few simple equations work together to create
the fractal shapes of ethical frameworks
the overall shape of the fern. Complexity and detail
emerge. Ethical frameworks are complex
emerge from simplicity as the result of chaos and
sets of value claims, rationales, and rules
order working in concert together.
that guide behaviour and include the cogni-
tive processes (moral reasoning) that lead to
Leo-
decisions and actions (see Table 1).
(1986) presentation of ethical dilemmas, and
pold's (1949) Land Ethic, Dustin, McAvoy, &
Mitten's (1985) feminist critique are examples
Schultz's (1995) philosophical foundation for
of discussions about ethical frameworks. Given
Hunt's
the park and recreation
profession,
the challenges of a diverse and changing
4
20
Fox & LAUTT
TABLE I
Examples of Value Claims, Ethical Frameworks, and Moral Practices
Values
Ethical Framework
Value Claims
Moral Practice
(Statements of Worth)
(Intersection of Behav-
(System of Propositions
and Premises)
iour and Reflection)
Trust
Cooperation is the best
Leopold's Land Ethic
Reflective action
way.
Virtuous Person
Rawl's Concept of Justice
Self-exploration
Frogs have intrinsic
Nature Centers
Utilitarian cost/benefit
Making visible the
value.
analysis
unconscious
The land is valued at
$2 million dollars.
Sarbo, 1993; Wilson, 1995; Wygant & Wil-
society, discussions about ethical frameworks
liams, 1995).
are essential for moving toward a congruency
between values and behaviour. Repeating
the
frameworks and moral
Ethical
practice
iterations once again leads us to moral practice,
emerge from narratives and stories (e.g., The
that which pertains to right conduct or behav-
Land Ethic or ecocentric worldviews) and from
iour. Moral practice is the systematic applica-
careful, philosophical inquiry (Dustin, McAvoy,
tion of values and ethical frameworks to one's
& Schultz, 1995; Fox, 1994; McAvoy, 1990;
or the transition of values and ethical
life,
Nash, 1987; Wurdinger, 1995). From similar
frameworks into practice (see Table 1). Moral
experiences, diverse and sometimes contradic-
practice implies an ability to reflect and adjust
tory ethical frameworks evolve. Robert S. Mac-
behaviour in accordance with the ethical frame-
Arthur (1995), in his Kurt Hahn Address, stated:
works, "right thought with right action." Moral
"When we, who would see ourselves as intent
practice, or ethically-based behaviour (Mat-
upon creating a just and compassionate world,
thews, 1996), is a complex dynamic that in-
find ourselves polarized over issues of diversity,
volves awareness of ethical
content
issues;
inclusion, awards, or anything else, for that
knowledge; critical thinking skills and disposi-
matter, then we have not stepped beyond our
tions; psychological attributes related to locus of
comfort zones to explore new ground (p. 32)." It
control, affective responses, responsibility, and
is not that the intent of outdoor "educators is not
gender roles (Redford, McPherson, Frankie-
pure or our people not committed and good.
wicz, & Gaa, 1995; Samuels, 1990); knowledge
Outdoor educators need to venture further onto
of strategies for change; mindfulness and re-
pathways that explore, develop and clearly ar-
flective abilities; and social networks (Sia, Hun-
ticulate the ethical frameworks that guide our
gerford & Tomera, 1986; Sochting, Skoe, &
various moral practices, rather than just identify
Marcia, 1994). Flanagan (1991) and Corral-
appropriate behaviours. When such explorations
Verguego (1993) suggest that ethical and moral
are structured to include meta-cognitive and
ideals need to be developed in accordance with
critical thinking content and skills, peer interac-
and cognitive
realities
psychological
social
tions, and mutual critique, outdoor education
abilities to think critically. Therefore, work in
practitioners enhance moral practice (Weber,
the fields of psychology, philosophy, religion
1993). It is not necessary to create a unified po-
and education is relevant to our questions about
sition for all to belong or adhere to. In fact, we
ethics and outdoor education (Buzzelli, 1993;
must make a subtle distinction between be-
Gessner et al, 1993; Gilligan, Ward, & Taylor,
longing to a group or adhering to a position,
1988; Weingberg, Yacker, Orenstein, & De-
which implies certain restrictions and norms,
21
ETHICS & OUTDOOR EDUCATION
grams can increase the outdoor knowledge of
and inclusion, where people can function within
the participants (Mio, Thompson, & Givens,
individuals with self-respect
totality
as
the
1990; O'Connor & Tindall, 1990; Peters, 1994).
grounded in their differences, similarities and
The studies have indicated that experiences in
interdependencies (Mitten, 1985).
the outdoors and experiential learning related to
Such complexity implies that a variety of
discussions
with
environment,
natural
the
forms, ranging from experiential activities and
structured for critical thinking and metacogni-
artistic creations to scholarly essays and re-
tion, lead to an increase in knowledge and moral
search, are necessary to explore the ethical
reasoning (Day, 1993; Swanson & Hill, 1993;
frameworks and moral practices of outdoor edu-
Wainryb & Turiel, 1993). Attitudes, knowledge,
cation. First, there are value pieces that focus on
affect and behaviour seem to be related, but the
values. These pieces are often personal reflec-
research has been unable to definitively identify
tions, descriptions of program ideals, choreo-
a causal relationship (Arcury, 1990; Armstrong
graphed movements, "talks" or presentations,
1994; Gudgion &
& Impara, 1991; Finger,
belief systems, fictional and poetic accounts,
Thomas, 1991; Knapp, 1995). The link with be-
outdoor experiences, or anecdotal accounts.
havioural change still eludes researchers, and it
Second, there are scholarly pieces that adhere to
may be that behaviour can be changed without
the standards and requirements related to schol-
an associated improvement in knowledge, inter-
arly discourse specifically in the areas of phi-
nalization of ethical frameworks, or moral rea-
losophy, history, social theory, critical theory,
soning. (Benton, 1993; Blaikie, 1993; Gigliotti,
feminist critique, and critical thinking. These
1992; Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera, 1987;
pieces are grounded in specific disciplines and/
Self, Schrader, Baldwin, & Wolinsky, 1993;
or structure requirements that allow the readers
Unger, 1994).
to judge the worth of the piece in relation to a
ethical
about
standard as well as the position presented.
the scholarship
Second,
frameworks relevant to outdoor education is
Third, there are research pieces that adhere to
becoming more prominent. Dustin, McAvoy &
the specific requirements related to qualitative
Schultz (1995), Fox (1991), Hunt (1995), McA-
and quantitative research processes and stan-
voy (1990), Mitten (1995, and Phipps (1993)
dards. We do not wish to imply that any of these
have been strong voices for articulating ration-
are more valuable than the other; in fact, we see
ales relevant to our conceptual frameworks and
them as different fractal shapes necessary for
moral practice. Recent interviews of outdoor
nurturing values, ethical frameworks and moral
leaders and current discourse about outdoor
practice, as well as preserving the creativity,
education values suggest that there is potential
diversity, complexity and beauty essential to
for enhancing and extending these discussions
outdoor education. We do think that the level of
among ourselves and across disciplines (Evem-
quality and multi-disciplinary interactions will
den, 1992; Gass, 1993; Gessner, et al., 1993;
affect how these forms enhance ethical reason-
Herrera, 1992; Horowitz, 1994; Pilgrim, 1980;
ing, support moral practice, and encourage in-
Priest & Baillie, 1987).
terdisciplinary alliances and mutual critique.
Third, the research on moral development in
FRACTAL THEMES RELEVANT TO ETHICAL
psychology and education indicates that the de-
DISCOURSE IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION
velopment of moral reasoning is complex, in-
We suggest that there are six prominent
volves various factors (e.g., discipline strategies,
themes directly or indirectly related to ethical
pedagogical techniques, peer interactions, edu-
frameworks and moral practices in outdoor edu-
cational levels, and community connections),
cation. First, research in outdoor education has
and is directly applicable to our research in out-
primarily focused on individuals and discrete
door education (Dyck, 1993; Keef, 1993; Keen,
connections between attitudes, knowledge, af-
1991; Lebuis, Schleifer, Caron, & Daniel, 1993;
fect, and behaviour. Outdoor education pro-
Miller, 1994; Schultz & Stone, 1994; Yount &
6
22
Fox & LAUTT
Horton, 1992). Furthermore, studies in other
resenting people with disabilities nourish the
fields suggest that typical components of out-
field of outdoor education (Ashley, 1990; Ber-
door education programs
soff & Miller, 1993; Datillo & Murphy, 1987;
experiential
(e.g.,
learning, peer interactions, direct experiences,
1992; Greer,
1987; Diaz-Guerrero,
DiChiro,
group discussions, critical thinking and intel-
1992; LaDuke, 1991; Levy, Taylor, & Gelman,
lectual perspective taking) enhance moral rea-
1995; Miller, 1994; McClintock, 1992; Oles,
soning (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993; Batchelder &
1992; Sheppard, 1995; Skoe & Diessner, 1994).
Root, 1994; Derksen & Gartrell, 1993; Green-
Through revisiting core values and inviting con-
wald-Robbins & Greenwald, 1994; Haste, 1993;
flicts, critiques and contradictions to rise to the
Langford, 1992; Tudin, Straker, & Mendolsohn,
surface, outdoor educators can strengthen ex-
isting or create new ethical frameworks and
1994). There is much work to be done to high-
light moral reasoning associated with outdoor
moral practices (Iwata, 1992; Ostrovsky, Parr,
education programs and ethically-based behav-
& Gradel, 1992). Many of the critiques focus on
iour in the outdoors. This work may be best ex-
outcomes or behaviours (e.g., exclusion, acces-
plored through collaborative research, mutual
sibility, or use of language). However, all ac-
critique, and critical dialogue about ethics and
tions are driven by values, and people choose
the natural environment.
(although not always consciously) specific be-
haviours and interactions dependent upon some
Fourth, moral practice also encompasses
connection (e.g., through ethical frameworks)
relational characteristics: love, friendship, com-
with their basic values. Behavioural change that
passion, caring, passion, and intuition. Insights
can respond to individual contexts and changing
from the work of Gilligan (Heiman, 1995) and
environments requires attention to congruence
Willett (1995) suggest that moral practice is
between ethical frameworks and actions.
also grounded in emotions, relationships, and
non-verbal interactions. Exploring avenues for
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
identifying these processes, communicating the
We would like to suggest that the fractals of
phenomena, and creating opportunities for the
ethical frameworks and moral practices in out-
interactions are essential for understanding the
door education function as complex, dynamic,
totality of moral practice.
and changing open systems. Furthermore, we
Fifth, spiritual journeys, traditions, and in-
believe that we do a disservice to the systems,
sights are an important aspect of relating to oth-
ourselves, and outdoor education when we sim-
ers, developing ethical frameworks, and attain-
plify the ethical frameworks and moral practices
of outdoor education without contextualizing
ing ethically-based behaviours. For many, basic
values are embedded in spiritual contexts and
and maintaining the complexity. For that reason,
practices (Gottlieb, 1995; Shapiro, 1989). The
it is important to embrace the complexity, mak-
recent surge in interest about various spiritual
ing visible the basic values, ethical frameworks,
views of the natural world are important to out-
moral reasoning and behavioural outcomes re-
door education. Not only do these spiritual tra-
lated to outdoor education, including relevant
ditions provide content for programs, but they
multi-disciplinary and cross-cultural perspec-
tives and research. The patterns that connect
are highly relevant to constructing a concept of
the natural world, refining moral reasoning, and
humans with the natural world, with other hu-
mans, and with ethical discourse and moral
implementing moral practice.
practice are vital,
sustaining processes. The
Welch (1990) maintains that an individual
"now-you-see-it, now-you-don't" quality of at-
or group can be ethical only when there is mu-
titudes, affect, knowledge and behaviour will
tual material interaction and critique, the final
continue to drive us crazy as long as we try to
theme. Feminist critiques, challenges from Afri-
decipher cause and effect between well-bounded
can-Americans, commentary by representatives
concepts (i.e., attitudes, knowledge, self-esteem,
of Indigenous communities, and initiatives rep-
and behavioural outcomes, among many). It
7
23
ETHICS & OUTDOOR EDUCATION
derstanding why concepts and programs in out-
might be more helpful to explore different vari-
door education influence participants, leaders,
ables (e.g., relationships over time, synergistic
and observers as well as they do. Simply talking
patterns of behaviour, communities of diversity)
in order to learn about the critical points and
about ethics, sharing values, and participating in
transition phases in the evolution of ethical
activities about ethical narratives and relation-
ships creates fields and inspires action-at-a-
frameworks and moral practice for outdoor edu-
distance. The metaphor also changes the nature
cation. The goal would be not to control, but to
increase our intuitions about how the varied
of our attention in six areas:
systems work and how we can interact with
Nurture the Human/Natural Connection:
1.
them more harmoniously (Briggs & Peat, 1989).
Fundamentally, outdoor education is about
Figure 2 is our initial attempt at describing
connecting humans with the natural world
some of the relationships and processes applica-
and each other. Outdoor education is often
ble to values, ethical frameworks and moral
the primary area for connecting humans
practices of outdoor education.
with the Earth. Science is continually en-
hancing and deepening our understanding of
WHERE DO WE WANT OR NEED
the natural world, and there continues to be
TO Go FROM HERE?
a need to explore, share and discuss how we
Our search for understanding, control and
want to structure and enhance the quality of
predictability has led us down numerous paths
these relationships. Outdoor educators need
of practice and research. We as authors are
to act as grand evocateurs of a reality that
struck with the sentiment expressed by Doug
enhances the potential for respectful and
Knapp at the 1996 Council on Outdoor Educa-
compassionate interaction among humans
tion Research Symposium: Even as his research
and with the Earth. Whether it is connecting
moves closer to explaining and quantifying
with cyberspace (Brookes, 1993), working
changes in environmentally responsible behav-
with inner city youth in the outdoors, pre-
iour that result from educational programs, he
serving wilderness areas, or providing quiet,
has this sense that taking more groups to the top
outdoor
experiences,
educators
solitude
of a mountain at sunset and playing his guitar is
must strengthen current strategies and create
just as significant. We suggest that he is tapping
new strategies that enhance interactions,
into a force or dynamic related to the space and
relationships,
ongoing
compassion
and
relationships surrounding the mountain, sunset,
(Cooper, 1994; Kleymeyer, 1992; Knapp,
living beings, guitar, and music; the knowledge
1994). By focusing on relationships, re-
about the outdoors; the positive social interac-
searchers and practitioners may discover in-
tions; the natural environment; and the personal
visible connections that
structure moral
value demonstrations.
practice in the outdoors.
Continuing with metaphors from physics,
Making Visible and Sharing Ethical Frame-
2.
the concept of fields comes to mind (Wheatley,
works and Moral Reasoning: There is an
1992). Field theory was developed as an attempt
urgent need to articulate ethical frameworks
to explain action-at-a-distance. Magnetic attrac-
and moral practices that respect the Earth.
tion or Newton's and Einstein's different views
There is some indication that those indi-
of gravitational fields are examples of action-at-
viduals who can competently apply critical
a-distance. Fields inhabit space, are invisible but
thinking content and processes to outdoor
nonetheless powerful, and encourage us to think
experiences, embrace complexity and ambi-
of a universe that resembles an ocean filled with
guity, and develop ecocentric ethical frame-
interpenetrating influences and invisible con-
works will engage in environmentally re-
necting structures. If we think of values, ethical
behaviour
sponsible
(Glassman,
1994;
frameworks and moral practices as fields, we
Thompson & Barton, 1994). We need to
believe we have an effective metaphor for un-
8
Fox & LAUTT
24
Interpenetrating Influences and Invisible Structures Related to Values and
Moral Frain. eworks in Relation to Outdoor Education and Recreation.
An individual creates ethical frameworks and follows
moral practices based partially on:
rillilliiill'
1- Value propositions;
2- Knowledge about content, structure and process;
3- Personal systems and frameworks about meaning;
4- Behavioral strategies;
5 - Relationships.
Unconscious and
Conscious and reflective
unreflective levels
levels of awareness,
of behaviours,
behaviours, and
responses, and
knowledge.
knowledge.
(Interactions and relationships with self,
people, nature, objects, and systems.
Figure 2. Interpenetrating influences and invisible structures related to values, ethical frameworks, and
moral practices in outdoor education.
9
25
ETHICS & OUTDOOR EDUCATION
Caring and Mindful Relationships Among
4.
extend ourselves into scholarly writings, ar-
People and with the Earth: Some research
ticulate ethical frameworks, enhance reflec-
(Dyck, 1993; Kochanska, 1994; Krebs &
tive capabilities, participate in artistic and
that the style
van Hesteren, 1994) suggests
intuitive processes, wrestle with complexity,
and discipline strategies of leaders are piv-
and support appropriate research. These
otal for the participants' moral develop-
paths of inquiry will require us to develop
ment. Therefore, both ethical leadership and
skills related to other disciplines (e.g., art,
followership in outdoor education becomes
philosophy, environmental ethics, feminist
a vital enterprise related to sustaining out-
critique, religion, ethical leadership, critical
door education, influencing others, and edu-
theory, history). Since there is some indica-
cating the next generation. Ethical leader-
tion that a commitment to ethical practice is
that
require
ship and followership
will
and
a lifelong journey, hearing the stories
scholars and practitioners alike attend to
assessing the ethical frameworks and prac-
personal development and change (Chaleff,
tice of others helps us (1) identify the chal-
1995; Flannery & Mary, 1994; Fox, Par-
lenges; (2) encounter boundaries of con-
sons, Barnett, & Reed, 1995; Grube, May-
cepts, discourse, knowledge, and individu-
1994; Kochanska,
ton, & Ball-Rokeach,
als; (3) find inspiration and support for the
1994; Krebs & van Hesteren, 1994; Myers,
ethical and moral challenges facing outdoor
1990). Fox and McAvoy's (1995) inter-
educators; and (4) connect with energy
views with outdoor leaders indicated that a
sources to sustain ethical behaviour over
"dynamic self-awareness" is a pivotal proc-
time. As individuals share specific ethical
the
ess. Dynamic self-awareness refers to
narratives, invite others to critique and re-
quality that an individual is able to reflect
spond, an "ethical field" will be generated
about her or himself; to attend to multiple
that engenders ethical reasoning and action-
levels of reality; to move between personal
at-a-distance in outdoor education.
and other issues; to choose values of life,
Spiritual Contexts for Outdoor Education:
3.
compassion and openness; and to make
Integrating spiritual traditions and perspec-
levels of patterns,
the multiple
visible
tives into outdoor education must be coor-
realities.
and
interpretations
meanings,
dinated with respect for diversity, "epi-
Through deliberate reflection and writing
stemic privilege,' and power relationships
about experiences, values, and rationales,
(Greeley, 1993; Kanagy & Willits, 1993;
understanding
foster
educators
outdoor
Oles, 1992).
about thinking and behaviour. Furthermore,
shared reflections and research provide op-
portunities for mutual critique and engen-
ders moral practice. Through enhancing in-
' "Epistemic privilege" as used in this paper extends
dialogue and reflection
formation flow,
the work of Narayan (1988). It is the concept that
members of oppressed, marginalized or specific
about the guiding visions of outdoor educa-
groups have a more immediate, subtle and critical
tion, we create a universe of experiences, in-
knowledge about the nature of their group's culture,
formation, and relationships (e.g., a field)
power relations, and experience than people who are
about ethical frameworks and moral prac-
non-members of the oppressed group. This claim
tices in the outdoors. When information and
does not need to imply that the group has clearer or
ethical discourse are freely generated and
better knowledge. Epistemic privilege claims that
exchanged among ours and other disci-
these individuals have all the details of the ways in
plines, we spawn hope and potentials rele-
which their oppression and power relations are expe-
vant to protecting natural areas and en-
rienced and of the ways in which the oppression and
power relations affect the major and minor details of
their social and psychic lives.
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