ERIC ED408992: Out of the Picture, Out of the Club: Technology, Mass Media, Society, and Gender.

10 Pages·0.21 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 408 992
IR 018 405
AUTHOR
Knupfer, Nancy Nelson; And Others
TITLE
Out of the Picture, Out of the Club: Technology, Mass Media,
Society, and Gender.
PUB DATE
Jan 97
NOTE
9p.; In: VisionQuest: Journeys toward Visual Literacy.
Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the
International Visual Literacy Association (28th, Cheyenne,
Wyoming, October, 1996); see IR 018 353.
PUB TYPE
Reports
Evaluative (142)
Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
Change; Community Attitudes; Community Role; Computer
Mediated Communication; Females; Males; *Mass Media Effects;
*Mass Media Role; *Sex Bias; *Sex Differences; Social
Influences; *Stereotypes; Technology; *Visual Stimuli
ABSTRACT
Images of society reflect the stereotypes and the realities
of gender tracking, often separating males from females. The messages of
gender separation begin early, laced throughout society in many ways. This
paper expresses different points of view about the relationships between
males and females, the computer culture, the influence of mass media, and
community. Discussion includes the neglect and omission of females from math
and technology fields; biases evidences in children's games, classroom
practices, educational design, advertisements, and visual messages conveyed
by the entertainment industry; different types of usage and attitudes toward
computers between males and females; differences in online communication
styles between males and females; the role of communities in society, in
helping people establish identities, and also in excluding people;
establishing a common ground between male and female communities through
changes in imagery portrayed to the general public; the role of parents and
teachers in separating males and females; and the opportunity through World
Wide Web communication for the public to shape the messages about shared
space and gender stereotypes. (Contains 41 references.)
(AEF)
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as
This document has been reproduced
received from the person or organization
originating it.
Out of the Picture, Out of the Club: Technology,
Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
Mass Media, Society, and Gender
in this
o Points of view or opinions stated
Nancy Nelson Knupfer, William J. Rust, and Judy E. Mahoney
represent
document do not necessarily
official OERI position or policy.
Abstract
This paper expresses different points of view about the relationships between males and
It cautions
females, the computer culture, the influence of mass media, and community.
readers to understand the need for sensitivity to the male perspective and the need to address
the issue of gender from within a societal context, rather than from a male versus female
approach.
a study
for
commercials
boys
and
two
While conducting
two
the
about
commercials for girls, not necessarily in any
design of World Wide Web (Web) pages,
specific order, but certainly distinctive in
our research team noted two things that are
(Courtney & Whipple,
imaging
gender
the
gender.
First,
related
to
directly
1983; Downs & Harrison, 1985; Kilbourne,
of
individual
whether
majority
pages,
Macklin & Kolbe,
1990; Lovdal, 1989;
personal or professional, were owned by
commercials are fast
The boys'
Thus we saw lots of information
1994).
males.
paced, outdoors and rugged, usually involve
about males and male's photographs on the
depict
often
we began
wheels,
something
on
notice
Second,
to
Web.
aggression, employ music with a fast tempo
recognizable signs that gave us clues about
and distinctive beat, and use camera angles
whether Web pages were designed by males
placing
boys
the
a
slant
up,
in
or females. At first we made some guesses
that
The
dominant position within the picture.
and then we began to categorize things to
slower paced,
commercials
are
girls"
combinations,
color
such
as
for,
look
indoors and sweet, usually involve dolls or
images, types of buttons, combinations of
fashion messages, often depict emotion and
of
curves, and
type
the
and
angles
caring for others, employ musical sweet
information included within the content of
calm undertones; and use camera angles
the pages. We are currently investigating
that slant down, placing the girls in the less
that issue and this paper is a background
dominant portion of the picture.
why some
of
about
the
these
paper
The stereotypes reinforced by television
worth examining.
might
differences
be
carry over into daily life (Berry & Asamen,
Here we investigate some of the literature
Berry & Mitchell-Kerman,
1982;
about gender differences in computer usage
1993;
Bring
Bred & Cantor, 1988; Fidel!, 1975).
that could very well appear in visual form in
of
this imagery
experience
to the
real
the next generation of the popular Web.
entering a computer consulting office at a
the
of
our
reflect
society
Images
typical university campus. The consultants
of gender
stereotypes and
the realities
are typically male, speak in a language of
from
separating
males
tracking, often
their own, and if you can understand the
For example, one might think
females.
language then you might understand the
about a common media image of adults at
help that is offered. Of course, the quality
The typical chief executive officer
work.
of help you get might depend completely
(CEO) in real corporate board rooms and in
the
of
that
degree
assistance
the
the media is male; he wears a suit and looks
on
consultant feels like providing, depending
real
a competent
The
leader.
like
on an instant first impression of your needs
elementary school teacher is female, dresses
and your perceived capacity to understand
projects, and wears a
for doing
school
too much
the help you get.
With all
pleasant expression; in the media of course,
frequency, the consultants miss completely
she is young and good looking, or reflects
and talk idown to female clients or speak a
The roles
the kindly grandmother image.
other
are defined, the images are engraved in
of
acronyms
and
language
not
that females
do
the
technobabble
people's minds.
Where does
Why?
this
understand.
The messages of gender separation begin
and
in many
what
start
miscommunication
early, laced throughout society
perpetuates it?
example,
For
television
the
ways.
As we consider
(>0
this
answer
the
to
children's
popular
within
commercials
0
question, we must ask a host of related
programs feature the gratuitous sequence of
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373
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For example, why do
case, then there would be no need for recent
the
questions.
efforts to attract girls into the study of math
girls
and
boys
depict
commercials
and science (Kable & Meece, 1994) and the
separately, reinforcing the separation by sex
number of distressing stories about females
at an early age that leads to separation by
succeeding despite the myriad of obstacles
At what point and
gender throughout life?
(Aisenberg & Harrington, 1988; Clark &
for what reasons do the genders mix in the
Corcoran, 1986; Frenkel, 1990; Gornick,
visual images depicted in advertising and in
1990) would no longer be told.
real life? What messages are given to males
Although many scholars insist that great
and females about turf, not mixing, and
strides have been made concerning gender
why? Is there common ground that can be
it has not been enough and the
equity,
found, and why is it not more frequently
equal
biases remain
barriers
to
As more emphasis is placed on
subtle
visited?
Rutherford,
schools, what
1990;
opportunity
(Rowe,
using the visual media in
1994; Sayan, 1994; Schwartz & Markham,
implications does this separation have for
1996;
Tannen,
1993;
Signorielli,
1985;
males and females? The Internet is clearly
Top, 1991). The real concern goes beyond
an environment that was structured by and
the biases of any specific people, to the
for males. Now that the Internet is placing
and
of
teachers
the
dimension
larger
more emphasis on the World Wide Web
of the
artists,
designers,
instructional
students,
visual
richness
this
will
(Web),
advertisers, administrators, and families that
communications environment be male turf
make up society as a whole. The evidence
like other technology areas or will the Web
is clear in the games of the children, the
be utilized as easily by females?
What
of
design
the
practices,
classroom
societal factors will influence the outcome?
educational products and environments, the
So far, messages within our society that are
advertisements found within all forms of
reinforced by the mass media emphasize
visual media, and
messages
the
visual
that youth and attractiveness are good, sex
conveyed by the entertainment industry.
is important, and males and females have
Since the computer industry is relatively
certain roles to play that are separate and
gender-
new, one would expect a more
distinct.
Yet that is not the case
diverse leadership.
and women continue to struggle to gain
Gender, Society and Technology
to
and
credibility,
gain
knowledge,
to
While our society encourages boys to get
the
within
achieve career
advancement
unknown
explore
and
messy,
wrestle,
1996).
(Kantrowitz,
fields
technology
territory, girls get subtle messages to keep
Couple this with the existing
difficulties
their hands clean, play with their dolls, obey
faced by females who work on university
the rules, and often they are discouraged
1988)
campuses (Aisenberg & Harrington,
from taking science and math in school
even more
the dynamic becomes
and
(Kantrowitz, 1996; Rowe, 1990).
While
complex, especially as administrators begin
boys and girls are equally
in
interested
to do such things as include degree of
computers until about the fifth grade, after
employee
within
usage
that point, boys' usage rises significantly technology
It would appear that many
evaluations.
and girls' usage drops (Kantrowitz, 1996).
females will find themselves stuck, as they
This is most likely due to increased sex-role
say, between a rock and a hard place.
By high school,
identification at that age.
or
either unwilling
Many people are
students show clear gender bias in their
unable to see beyond their current practices,
(Shashanni,
technology
attitudes
toward
beliefs, and biases. If that were not the case,
Surely the attitudes of the high
1994).
then why do we not see more women in top
school students will carry into adulthood
where decisions
are
roles
administrative
the
higher education and
into
through
made concerning budgets, strategies, and
workplace.
policies? The majority of decisions about
The neglect and omission of the female
utilization
and
purchases
from math
technological
technology
and
population
being decided by males, thus leading to
fields reveal themselves in subtle ways on an
for
males
structured
are
that
situations
individual basis, but as a collective result
male
users. Why do we not routinely see
as something
appear throughout
society
of
opinions
the
seeking
administrators
that begins in the home, and perpetuates
making
prior
to
subordinates
female
itself through schooling and employment
decisions about technology that will affect
practices (Rowe, 1990). If that were not the
374
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them in their work. For example, why are
Branch, 1995) and in advertisements about
more teachers not involved in fact finding
computer technology (Knupfer, 1996).
prior to making important decisions that
The literature further reveals that women
affect
their
classroom
If
practices?
represented
are
not
well
the
new
in
computer-supported multimedia is such an
generation of high technology occupations.
important part of our lives, then why do we
Changing that is important because society
see more women on the executive
can ill afford to waste half of its innate
not
talent, nor can it justify wasting of talent
boards of technology companies?
The president of a technology company
gender-based
due
to
access to
Discouraging half of our
question
this
opportunities.
answered
saying
that
by
women have never been on the board of
population
from entering
high
the
directors in his company and they are not
technology fields is a practice that can only
hurt our society.
Rather than
acceptable candidates because they are not
thinking
about what is
reliable. Why are they not reliable?
which gender
for
good
Well,
they will get pregnant and then they leave.
separately, the focus should be on thinking
When told that the women might come back
about what is good for society as a whole.
to jobs
Instead of arguing for equal
reward them,
quickly
for
that
rights
the
executive said the
reason was that
women in a way that pits women against
real
women could not be trusted.
Why not?
beneficial
more
men,
be
would
it
to
approach this as a societal problem that
Because they do not fit and it would not be
appropriate to discuss important business
must be solved by working together.
This
with them
(Larsen,
distinction is crucial and it can be supported
sounds
1996).
It
by the way in which women and men are
outrageous but is it really that far from the
in our
truth of what commonly occurs
depicted in the mass media.
Girls can achieve equally
Is it isolated to corporate board
society?
the
well
in
aforementioned areas but have not been
rooms? Is it part of the computer culture?
is evidence of different
Clearly, there
encouraged to do so until recently.
And
of usage
now the attempts are filled with remaining
types
different
and
attitudes
hurtles and barriers that must be overcome
toward
computers
between
males
and
Men tend to be seduced by the
(Top, 1991).
Meaningful practice must do
females.
technology itself rather than what they can
more to attend to these matters and take an
do with it in a practical sense (Kantrowitz,
encouraging
role
active
(Van
girls
in
Like bragging about fast cars, men
Nostrand, 1991).
Designers advertisements,
1996).
mass media
often brag about the size and speed of their
messages,
educational
and
materials can make a
On the other
computers and software.
better
effort
to
hand, women tend to focus on the utility of provide experiences that girls can relate to,
the machine rather than its glamour. They
offering instructional opportunities that are
do not care about what is on the inside nor
encouraging
gender
biased,
not
and
what makes it work, but are very much
actively attend
of
teachers
issues
to to
concerned that it function sufficiently well
gender equity (Turk le & Papert 1990).
to meet their needs (Kantrowitz, 1996).
Importance of Communities
The difference can be stated simply as a.
male tendency to focus on the tool itself
Although research on computer-mediated
to focus on the
and a female tendency
dates back
communication
early
the
to
days of computer network technology in
utility of the tool. While men tend to think
of computers as powerful ways to extend
the
recently that
only
1970's,
it
is
their physical limitations, women tend to
researchers have begun to take into account
of them as a means to
an end
the gender of the users.
Recent research
think
Men want to force
(Kantrowitz, 1996).
reveals that men
women
have
and
recognizably
computers to submit while women just want different
styles
posting
in
computers to work (Tannen, 1996).
messages to the Internet, and that they have
Thus
we see a difference
different scommunication
relationship
the
ethics. One
in
between people and computers based on
analysis of listserve discussions revealed that
The media capitalizes on those
68 percent of the messages posted by men
gender.
differences and further widens the gap by
used an adversarial style in which the writer
or
himself
exaggerating
concentrating
distanced
criticized,
on
or from,
stereotypical roles in the way people are
ridiculed
other
participants,
often
and
in computer clip art (Binns &
In contrast
promoted his own importance.
portrayed
375
because it leaves out the modifying clause,
attenuation;
women displayed features of
Being born
"being born into a society."
asked
and
apologized,
hedged,
they
into a society, each individual has certain
In
questions rather than making assertions.
If rights exist only within
rights by birth.
addition, the women's postings tended to
the context of a society, then that
a
is
revealing
orientation,
personal
reveal
a
First, rights exist only
crucial omission.
thoughts and feelings, interacting with and
Second,
within the context of a society.
supporting others (Herring, 1996).
rights are only violated through willful acts.
that
claim
people
some
Although
"Othering" is an interesting concept that
electronic communications are anonymous
is the dark side of community. Community
and therefore invite participation of both
of
the joining together or grouping
is
males and females, that will not necessarily
If an individual can
individuals in society.
be the case if our on-line communicative
community is, in
say that a member of a
For then gender
style reveals our gender.
like me" then
some meaningful way, "just
social
their
with
along
differences,
is also a member of that
that individual
in
persist
to
likely
are
consequences,
community.
(Herring,
networks
computer-mediated
Communities come in two classes, natural
As a part of the on-line network
1996).
Natural communities are
and constructed.
and
popular,
growing,
that
fast
is
those that happen by birth or mishap. Skin
the Web holds
a
oriented,
graphically
color is one such community, blindness is
will have great
prominent position, so
it
Constructed communities, which
If females are to use
another.
impact on its users.
largely
are
numerous,
it cannot be
more
far
are
the web productively, then
Religions are a good example.
Let us
voluntary.
restricted to the male domain.
Some
Soap opera viewers are another.
examine some ideas about groups, territory,
constructed communities are based upon
belonging, and oppression, and relate that
natural ones, for example, a cohesive group
of
display
visual
the
to
information
has come
based on ethnic
that
origin
information about using computers.
to recognize common
interests
together
that
man
a
straw
establish
Let
us
based on that origin.
represents the way that many people believe
Communities vary by the intensity of the
hurt. In
an identifiable group of people are
membership in the community and how
the case we are presenting, the injured or
importance.
their
views
society
oppressed group is females. Which group
Communities play a large and significant
hurting them and why?
the
Since
is
role in society. They not only define where
identified
oppressed or victim group
is
individuals fit into society, but also help
based upon sex, not gender, it follows that
people to establish identities. They provide
the other group, the oppressors, must be
continuity and a sense of belonging
to
Logically, it follows
composed of males.
something greater than an individual realm.
equal
females do
have
not
since
that
Communities give people purpose.
representation in the high technology fields,
But community has a dark side which is
remedies are needed that modify the hurtful
called othering. Othering is the opposite of
behavior of the males so that the females'
The meaning of
building.
community
rights to equal opportunity are respected.
being an other varies with the community in
two
upon
based
process
This
is
.
question. It is the group of people who can
fundamental ideas; the canon of individual
be harmful or destructive to a community.
Both
rights and the process of "othering."
For the double jointed community, once
They are
of these need a clear airing.
school, being an
you get past elementary
commonly misunderstood and misapplied.
other makes very little difference. For a
simply
of individual
rights
The canon
Moslem in Bosnia, a Hutu in Burundi, an
declares that individuals have rights. These
urban dweller in Kampucheia, a Jew in Nazi
rights are both inalienable and inherent.
at about the same time, a
Germany or,
Assembly
General
The United
Nations
Ukrainian in the Ukraine, being an other
passed a statement of these rights
in its
had very serious consequences.
document, Declaration of Human
1948
Rights, and reaffirmed the document within
Othering and Common Ground
that
last few years at Helsinki.
In
the
For members of our society at present, the
document, certain things were declared to
usually
consequences of being an other are
be rights by birth. The concept of rights by
However, the
not extreme on the surface.
is wrong
birth is quite simply wrong.
It
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subtle biases levied by those in powerful
from typical members of society and those
positions over many years are cumulative
differences became a part of the "just like
and can be devastating in terms of the
me" criteria.
There are reasons why the
domino
effect
that
as they
communities are
result.
From
that
are.
Simply
perspective, there is a paradigm established
wanting
change,
to
simply
demanding
from which to examine potential remedial
females' right to inclusion will not work.
actions to get more females involved in
Instead, the way to get females integrated
high technology endeavors.
into high technology fields is to find a way
The basic premise of most studies about
to get the males and females to be able to
females using technology
is that because
say together that they have some common
the percentage of females using technology
ground within the technology community.
is lower than the percentage of males using
That
ground
common
cannot
depict
is acting to keep
technology, something
females as sexual objects nor decorations
females out.
Indeed, many women who
nor servants to the male needs.
work with technology
believe
that
the
This
of
concept
common
building
environment is hostile towards them (Turk le
ground begs society to examine the way it
& Papert, 1990). A case can be made that
community.
defines
deep
The
and
women's rights
are being
violated and
persistent problem of gender separation
remedial action is required to change the
begins in early childhood, permeates the
technology environment so that women are
toy and fashion
industries, sticks in
the
welcomed. That means there is a need to
minds of teachers who separate boys and
change the attitudes and behavior of society
girls in to separate groups, and pushes its
toward women and technology. Yet gender way into homes as parents succumb to
differences in attitudes toward technology
societal pressures separate activities along
begin in the way that males and females are
If boys and girls
gender lines.
are not
thus
raised,
reflecting
allowed to develop working relationships
the
social
expectations of individuals, family, friends,
and friendships in early childhood, how can
Davies &
and
society
(Canter,
they be expected to overcome the barriers
1979;
Eccles, 1987; Houser &
Kandel,
1981;
If they are bombarded with
in later years?
Garvey, 1985), so this becomes a rather
images of stereotypes about gender and
large issue.
technology throughout their lives, how will
But changing the society
is something
they
expected
be
overcome
to
those
that must be done carefully.
Remember
stereotypes in later years?
that the canon of individual rights is based
It is important to ask men if they are
upon the premise that having rights
trying to prevent women from joining their
will
promote and protect society, not damage it,
One of the male authors of
community.
so the technology-using male community
this paper remembers his experience at one
should not be damaged in
of the top technical
process.
the
universities
the
in
Instead there must be a way to work
He recalls that there was
United States.
together to find common ground between
no community
with women.
absolutely
the male and female communities.
While growing up he had a ham radio,
One
way of helping to establish this common
model rocketry, model trains, photography,
ground is through imagery portrayed to the
and so on, but no exposure to girls on a
general public. Imagery that shows regular
There were virtually no girls
social basis.
women
productive
involved in any of his activities. Why not?
in
roles
using
Were his parents narrow minded in
technology in powerful ways would help.
this
When communities are defined,
regard? Was his community social structure
others
become the enemy.
Those others
narrow channeled in this regard?
Did he
are
individuals. They came to be who they are
never explore beyond the boundaries of
by their belonging, and not belonging, to a
what came in his direction and asked to join
of
variety
natural
and
constructed
in his current activities? In the days of his
Perhaps their communities
communities.
childhood, it was considered improper for a
are dysfunctional, perhaps they are hostile
girl to extend the first invitation to a boy.
to people unlike themselves. However they
For what must be a host of reasons, girls
came to be, the fact is that they do exist.
were not there and so the experience of
The existing male technology community
working
girls
did
with
not
exist
in
was shaped by our society.
Members of
childhood years or in college.
He says,
that community are different in many ways
do not
most male "high
techies"
hate
377
What will we see in the near future on the
fear them, and
women. They love them,
At least one author has already
Web?
them,
perhaps have no clue how to talk to
portrayed the Web as male space, depicting
do not
them.
hate
certainly
but
they
the changing face of advertising, Web space
the
Women have just never been part of
business
that is, in a male hat, necktie, and
a
there
is
therefore
and
world
male
Even though the
suit (Geracioti, 1996).
difference perspective.
majority of network users are males (Shade,
You might ask why he did not consider
learn
to be a
1993), females must be encouraged to
school experience
the primary
skills and be provided with opportunities to
After all,
mixture of males and females.
be
have equal access to information, and
joint
girls do
in
participate
boys and
using
roles
productive
portrayed
in
certain
physical education classes up to a
technology. Women will have a chance to
and
grade, dependent upon the community
obvious or
stake out a space, but will it be
boys
the school. While it might be true that
male
the
by
be overshadowed
it
will
and girls are in the same class, it is also true
and
Internet
the
started
job of
that
presence
that some teachers do a very efficient
continues to dominate computer culture?
separating them within classroom groups.
certainly
The answer to that question is
have
For example, "Preschool X" seems to
influence
can
people
but
not
simple,
wonderful teachers but the entire group
educational applications of the Web by
by
children
the
focuses on
separating
that
designing instructional environments
The class lists are hung in the
gender.
population
attend to the needs of the female
hallway and distributed to parents not on
Several authors
as well as those of- males.
by
the basis of who is in what class, but
things that
have made suggestions about
listed at
gender, with all of the boys' names
improve
teacher -and parents can do to
the top and all of the girls' names listed at
1995;
in schools (Couch,
gender equity
into
When children break
the bottom.
McCormick, 1994; Olivares & Rosenthal,
and even on field
groups it is by gender,
Those
1992; Ploghoft & Anderson, 1982).
of
groups
assigned
are
parents
trips,
ideas can be transferred directly to any
children to supervise by gender (Knupfer,
does
educational environment that does or
1995-96).
and
not use technology. To begin, parents
In contrast, the other authors of this paper
teachers can encourage reflective practice
the
do remember some slight exposure to
hand
that makes adjustments to the needs at
other gender during their childhood years.
the walls
and considers ways to disassemble
They also recall that it was self initiated
within our
of current gender segregation
between the individuals involved and not
The information age brings the
Males and
society.
assisted by teachers or parents.
and
challenge of shifting responsibilities
work
and
together
play
can
females
will be to find
one of the most important
It seems that
together in productive ways.
males and
the common ground upon which
society offers opportunities to mix, yet at
healthy
females can find trust and build
childhood years
some point during our
in
begin
that
relationships
working
those opportunities are changed by parents
life.
childhood and carry on through adult
and teachers who define them as taboo
the
It is no small challenge to overcome
the
ignore
blindly
or
situations,
of
years
mass media
and
of
images
opportunities for shared experiences and
at a
stereotypes, but it can be done one step
By the
segregation.
the consequences of
time.
are
males and
females
years,
teenage
strongly discouraged from intermingling
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