ERIC ED380077: The Role of Graphic Elements in the Accurate Portrayal of Instructional Design.

14 Pages·1995·0.41 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
IR 016 998
ED 380 077
Branch, Robert C.; Bloom, Janet R.
AUTHOR
The Role of Graphic Elements in the Accurate
TITLE
Portrayal of Instructional Design.
PUB DATE
[95]
14p.; In: Imagery and Visual Literacy: Selected
NOTE
Readings from the Annual Conference of the
International Visual Literacy Association (26th,
Tempe, Arizona, October 12-16, 1994); see IR 016
977.
Research/Technical (143)
PUB TYPE
Reports
Speeches /Conference Papers (150)
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Adjectives; College Students; *Comparative Analysis;
DESCRIPTORS
*Deta Interpretation; *Diagrams; *Flow Charts; Higher
Education; Illustrations; Instructional Design;
*Visual Aids; Visual Learning; Visual Literacy
ABSTRACT
This study explores the interpretation of two types
of flow diagrams composed of different visual elements intended to
communicate the same meaning. Using linear and cyclical diagrams, the
study focused on whether, given a series of diagrams using linear
elements and a series using cyclical elements, both types of visuals
convey the same message to viewers in relation to instructional
design information. Ninety-three college students were asked to read
flow diagrams, either composed of boxes connected by straight lines
or ovals connected by curved lines, and immediately write three to
five adjectives describing the diagram. It was discovered that: (1)
the two flow diagrams were not perceived as having significant
(2) both types were
differences in the message they conveyed;
perceived as being appropriate for the display of instructional
design models, although the ovals diagram was perceived as being more
representative of the synergistic nature of the instructional design
(3) the ovals diagram was interpreted by more participants
process;
and
as a means of sending a more interactive interdependent message;
(4) both diagrams elicited similar adjectives from the participants,
and nerefore neither was perceived as giving a more accurate
of the instructional design process. Two figures provide
portraya
(MAS)
the flow diagrams. (Contains 34 references.)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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The Role of Graphic Elements in the Accurate
Portrayal of Instructional Design
-PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Offica 01 Educational Research and Improvement
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
Robert C. Branch
INFORMATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
CENTEER
IC)
Alice Walker
as
O This document has Peon reproduced
Janet R. Bloom
received trom the person or organization
Originating it.
to improve
O Minot mangos hive been made
reproduction quality
Stated in this docu-
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
i s Points of view oi opmions
official
ment do not necessarily represent
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
OERI position or pokey
The elements of a visual dis-
triangle, the square, and the circle.
play should form a coherent system
All other shapes or forms are made
and convey a message that is unam-
using these basic figures" (Dondis,
biguous. "The role of the visual is a
1973, p. 44). "When we look, at an
projection of the intent or purpose of
image, our eyes tend to start in the
its' creator. Illustrations in text are
upper left corner and then move
usually there to support the text and
around the image as we are directed
carry the authors' message and
to by lines, shapes, and other
agenda" (Braden, 1994, p. 199), sim-
phenomena" (Berger, 1989, p. 47).
plifying the readers' information
Learning from print involves learning
processing. This type of processing
to sequence information and therefore
involves perception and interpreta-
to think in linear, sequential ways.
tion of a diagram.
The traditional way of thinking in
most cultures, which uses a linear
Perceptions and interpretations
mode, often represented by a
can be influenced by the designers'
hierarchical model, should be
choice of visual elements, which
replaced by a relational,
should help show the relationships
interdependent way of visualizing.
among elements. Diagrams are the
connection between an idea and the
This presentation reports on a
formation of a message. Grabowski
comparison of two types of flow dia-
(1991) defines message design as
grams with similar content. "Graphic
planning for the manipulations of the
elements are entities in a diagram that
physical form of the message.
represent objects, events, and
Designs depicting processes such as
concepts in an information network"
flow diagrams are usually sequential
(Hardin, 1988). For example, the
and involve a directional element.
Lines are one of the basic design
is typically recognized as the
elements found invisual
symbol for a decision point in the
communication. Lines are used to
display of a logic pattern whereas an
make shapes, indicate direction, and
-> denotes direction or movement.
form outlines. "There are three basic
This study is about the importance of
shapes, all formed using lines: the
0'
meaning associated with selected
1VLA - 162
2
reading visual messages is a
visually illustrate ways in which
2.
learned capability, and
graphic elements influence
perception of entire models. "A
through use of visual competen-
3.
visually literate person should be able
cies, we can design messages
to understand (read) images and use
which enable the potential for
(write) visual language" (Ausburn &
learner achievement.
Ausburn's study, as cited in Hortin,
Visual messages are as much a
1978) intelligently. "The higher order
part of the communication process as
thinking skills of analyzing,
is language. Readers should be able
synthesizing, and interpreting the
to translate both written and visual
visual image do not come naturally"
ideas to form a complete message.
(Goldstone, 1989, p. 592). Higher
Visual literacy enables better use of
order skills involve using abstract
both written, spoken, and visual
thinking skills, which must be taught
skills. Visual displays help viewers
in order to facilitate the ability to
understand content and therefore
creatively construct meaning from
understanding these images becomes
visual displays. "Visual Literacy can
important in its' own right. We must
be defined as the ability to
therefore explore visual messages
comprehend and create information
systematically, with the same
that is carried and conveyed through
attention given to the study of
visual imagery" (Considine & Haley,
linguistics.
1992, p. 14). Visual Literacy refers to
a group of vision competencies a
The study of visual commu-
human being can develop by seeing
nication is also important in that it
and at the same time integrating other
Helps sustain research on how people
sensory experiences. The
learn. Fleming (1983) states that
development of these competencies is
teachers of instructional design still
fundamental to normal human
have problems in using appropriate
learning, and when developed, they
imagery to attain desired learning
enable a visually literate person to
outcomes. "Students can be taught to
discriminate and interpret the visible
recognize, read, recall, and com-
actions, objects, and/or symbols,
prehend visual messages" (Considine
natural or man-made, that he
& Haley, 1992, p. 15). Once people
encounters in his environment.
understand the method of designing
Through the creative use of these
and using visual messages they can
vision competencies, he is able to
use them effectively in their own
communicate '4-1th others. Through
attempts at learning. The application
appreciative use of these abilities he is
of visual communication to
able to comprehend and enjoy the
Educational Technology enables
masterworks of visual
instructional designers to increase
c6mmunLation (Miller, 1985). Visual
their ability to share both methods
L ,eracy is based on the assumptions
and concepts with current students
that:
and incorporate these ideas into
"courses throughout the curriculum"
interpreting visual images is id-
1.
(Schamber, 1991, p. 20). "Organized
iosyncratic,
IVLA - 163
3
content and instruction of visual
Procedural models, such as
communication and its associated
those that portray instructional design
technology is necessary to enlighten
processes, depict a sequence of
and educate students for an
functions or tasks required to achieve
information age and lifelong
some type of goal, and commonly
learning" (Bell, 1993, p. 12). The
employ visual elements. The
study of visual communication will
instructional design process
benefit instructional design profes-
presented in Figure 1 employs a va-
sionals as well as students in in-
riety of graphic elements to com-
structional design programs by al-
municate different types of functions
lowing them to apply visual design
toward a specified purpose. The
techniques to aid the learning process
connotations attached to each element
and increase the probability of the
represent a micro perspective of the
receiver correctly interpreting the
entire procedure as well as contribute
message being sent.
synergistically to the whole procedure
as perceived by the viewers.
IT?evise
instruction
F
Conduct
1
Instructional
Analysis
1
I
Develop
Develop & Design &
[Identify
De.m,
Write
vetlorional
Criterion
Select
Instructional
-to
Performance I-40'
Referenced
Instructional
Ocial(s)
CfondTrmave
Strategy
Test Items
Evaluation
Materials
A
Identify
_16
Entry
Behaviors,
OWUW W1C5
1
L..
VW
Design &
Conduct
Sumrnstive
Evaluation
Figure 1. Dick and Care), (1990)
4
IVLA - 164
represented iteration, an open sys-
Graphic elements which elicit
viewer interpretations that are in-
tems approach, and a systematic
process. The same information is
consistent with the original intent of
the entire procedure diminish the
displayed in Figure 2, but the graphic
effectiveness of a procedural model
elements, as well as their
used to portray accurate functions or
juxtaposition, are arranged in such a
tasks. To the average viewer it may
way as to convey meaning that is
be unclear that the model presented
more consistent with the original
in Figure 1 was intended to portray
intent of the procedure.
sets of functions and tasks which
Summatrve
Evaluation
Wirf
Plan
IIIIISM=01=
Evaluation)
Cibt
Media
Instructional
Strategies
Situational
Assessment
Objeetives
kabiatonid
Goeh
Performance Assessment
Learner Analysis
comative Evaluation
Educational Goal
Figure 2. Branch (1994)
5
IVLA - 165
Perception
spread in the way people perceived
picture contents, with very poor
Perception is a relative thing,
agreement between intended and
based on the relationship of visual
perceived content (Pettersson, 1987).
elements to the environment, our own
Gestalt psychology shows that per-
personal characteristics, how we
ceptually the meaning of a whole
organize information to make
diagram depends on the relationship
meaning, and our cultural experi-
between its' parts. "Everyday visual
ences. "To perceive is to become
perception is, in fact, a continuous
aware through the senses, particularly
flow of these complex inter-
through sight or hearing, and to
relationships" (Preble, 1989, p. 8).
achieve understanding by means of
Visual elements have a conceptual
such awareness" (Preble, 1989, p. 5).
relationship based on their similarity,
Visualization has more to do with
proximity, and continuity.
mental processing than physical
ability. The mind and eye must work
Perception of the relationships
together to interpret visual images
in diagrams is also based on language
and conceptualize what we see.
training. Learned conventions such
"Good diagrams promote un-
as reading from left to right, and top
derstanding" (Hardin, 1994, p. 20)
to bottom cause us to assume
and clarify relationships. The im-
relationships even when none exist.
portance of using effective visuals,
Causal connections and subordinate
and of knowing what makes them
effects are eftributed to elements of
effective, is significant in communi-
the diagram based on how they are
cating information. The majority of
positioned. These biases are cultural
the communication process takes
and are learned by almost everyone at
place through images. "We receive
an early age.
80% or more of our information
through our eyes, and much of this
Perception includes many
communication is done indirectly,
similarities to cognitive processes,
through symbolic means: by words
using existing schema on which to
and signs and symbols of all kinds"
build new information. Based on this
(Berger, 1989, p. 1). The left brain is
the content of a diagram becomes
mostly involved in analytical, logical
much more important than its'
thinking, especially in verbal and
format. Visual information is usually
mathematical processing. Its' mode
retained longer in memory than
of operation is primarily linear, and
verbal information. Using visuals
processes information sequentially.
also increases the level of retention of
The right brain specializes in holistic
the viewer. Using both verbal and
information processing such as our
visual material causes dual encoding.
orientation to space, art, body image,
This gives the reader a greater chance
and recognition of faces. Both sides
of recalling the information at a later
are involved in visual processing.
date, and being able to use the
information as the foundation on
A study of intended and per-
which to build further cognitive
ceived image content showed a wide
IVLA - 1,66
K -12 education, higher education,
information as the foundation on
business and industry, or government
which to build further cognitive
training needs (Edmonds, Branch and
structures. The quality of the images
Mukherjee, in press). The uniqueness
used is therefore extremely important
of the situation generated a model
in building schema on which to base
flexible enough to accommodate the
future cognitive processing.
needs of that particular environment
and to design effective instruction for
Instructional Design
that situation.
Instructional design involves
Instructional Design profes-
the systematic planning of instruction
sionals typically employ models that
to increase its effectiveness and help
guide
are based on systems theory to
people learn. Systematic planning is
their practice (Edmonds, Branch and
based on a series of pre-determined
Mukherjee, in press). A system is a
steps generated by knowledge of how
regularly interacting or interdepen-
people learn. "All the stages in any
dent group of items framing a unified
instructional systems model can be
whole (Edmonds, Branch and
categorized into one of three
Mukherjee, in press). These models
functions: (1) identifying the
are part of the communication process
outcomes of the instruction, (2) de-
within the field of instructional
veloping the instruction, and (3)
design, and enable us to explore,
evaluating the effectiveness of the
understand, and describe hierarchical
instruction (Gagne, Briggs and
characteristics, relationships and
Wager, 1992, p. 21). The systems ap-
interactions, parameters, dynamics
proach is an interactive process which
patterns, results of integration and
goals
uses feedback to determine if its
synthesis, and modifications in sys-
have been achieved. Systems models
tem patterns (Edmonds, Branch and
are iterative by nature, and revisio:i
Mukherjee, in press). Instructional
continues until the desired outcomes
Design models should communicate
are reached.
the idea of multiple iterations and the
cyclical nature that occurs in reality.
The effectiveness of the sys-
tems approach to instructional design
Instructional design models
is based on learner outcomes, the
should be based on the idea of input-
linkage between systems components,
process-output, and have specific
and the process being both empirical
goals, results, or products which pre-
and replicable. The emphasis of a
determine their use. Instructional
true systems approach is the process.
designers also use models to
Therefore, systems theory remains the
communicate p, oject requirements, to
theoretical origin for the majority of
aid management practices, or to help
existing instructional design models
in the decision making process.
(Edmonds, Branch and Mukherjee, in
"Instructional design models are
press). Many of today's instructional
divided into three categories: (1)
design models were designed in
classroom focus; (2) product focus;
relation to a specific context such as
and (3) system focus" (Gustafson,
7
IVLA - 167
1991, p. 6). The classroom focus
Methodology
involves designing better instruction.
Product focus revolves around quick
The participants were 93 col-
and efficient development of
lege students at a University in the
northeastern United States. The
deliverables. Systems focus is based
on the design of complete courses or
gender distribution was 54 females,
38 males, and one unknown, the
curricula, and involves much
more
age
analysis of the task, the context, and
range was 20 and older, and 45% of
the intended audience.
the participants were in the 20 to 30
year old age category. The distribu-
tion of professional occupations and
Research Questions
college majors showed that 37% of the
participants were involved in
This study explored the inter-
instructional design as either gradu-
pretation of two types of flow dia-
ate students or designers, another
grams composed of different visual
21% were teachers, and 42%
were
elements intended to communicate
from a variety of other occupations
the same meaning. Using linear and
and college majors. The participants
cyclical diagrams the study focused
were randomly assigned to one of the
on whether, given a series of
two treatment conditions.
diagrams using linear elements and
a
series of diagrams using cyclical el-
The task for each of the partic-
ements, both types of visuals con-
ipants was to read a flow diagram
veyed the same message to viewers in
and immediately write three to five
relation to instructional design
adjectives to describe the diagram.
information and practice regardless of
The first treatment condition (Boxes)
the type of diagram they
were given.
required the participants to read
a
The specific questions were:
flow diagram composed essentially of
boxes connected by straight lines with
1. Do flow diagrams convey
mean-
arrows. The second treatment
ings typically associated with the
condition (Ovals) required the
process of instructional design?,
participants to read a flow diagram
2. Do flow diagrams composed
composed essentially of ovals
mainly of boxes and straight lines
connected by curved lines with
with arrows illicit the same
arrows. Figure 3 represents the actual
adjectives as flow diagrams
diagram read by the participants of
com-
posed mainly of ovals and curved
the Boxes group. Figure 4 represents
lines with arrows?, and
the actual diagram read by the
participants of the Ovals group. Each
3. Do flow diagrams composed
participant was given two minutes to
mainly of ovals and curved lines
write three to five adjectives in
a
with arrows accurately portray the
space provided on the same page of
instructional design process
more
the diagram.
than flow diagrams composed
mainly of boxes and straight lines
with arrows?
8
IVLA - 168
Figure 3. Flow Diagram A: Boxes with Straight Lines and Arrows
OPP-
Figure 4. Flow Diagram B: Ovals with Curved Lines and Arrows
that used in a study done by Branch,
Data Analysis
Moore, and Sherman (1988) which
The data were analyzed by
looked at the criteria for hiring
tabulating all the written responses
instructional designers as professors
from the participants to determine
or for positions in business and
frequencies, and to generate cate-
industry, and with a study conducted
gories for describing the perceptions
by Braden and Baca (1991) which
of the respondents relative to their
looked at the components of visual
perceptions about the diagrams they
literacy. The adjectives for each flow
read. This method is consistent with
9
IVLA - 169
diagram were combined using a
systematic, directional, iterative, busy,
collegiate thesaurus (Merriam-
systemic, and structured.
Webster, 1991) and a collegiate
dictionary (Webster, 1991) to identify
Research Question 2: Do flow
words with the same meaning.
diagrams composed mainly of boxes and
straight lines with arrows illicit the
same
Results
adjectives as flow diagrams composed
mainly of ovals and curved lines with
Research Question 1: Do flow
arrows?
diagrams convey meanings typically
associated with the process of in-
The results were inconclusive,
structional design?
due.to the similarity of the lists of
adjectives generated by the partic-
Yes, similar adjectives were
ipants. While similar words were
used to describe both flow diagrams.
included in both lists (see figure 5) the
Words consistently referenced in the
adjectives used to describe the flow
literature to describe the instructional
diagram with ovals also included
design process were included as
words such as circular, geometric,
adjectives for the boxes and ovals
cyclical, visual, and interactive.
flow diagrams such as linear, flowing,
Ovals
Boxes
confusing
systematic
22
27
systematic
linear
15
16
flowing
sequential
14
11
circular
complex
14
10
visual
flowing
12
9
busy
7
boxed
6
beautiful
structured
5
6
geometric
related
5
5
bizarre
4
clear
5
interactive
4
feedback
4
directional
4
iterative
4
iterative
4
systemic
4
intriguing
busy
3
3
closed
detailed
3
3
systemic
design
3
3
structured
directional
3
3
non-linear
angular
3
2
moving
3
linear
3
simple
2
boring
2
Figure 5. List of Combined Adjectives
10
IVLA - 170