ERIC ED378319: American Poverty: The Role of Education, Training and Employment Strategies in the New Anti-Poverty Struggle.

120 Pages·1994·3.6 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
CE 067 891
ED 378 319
American Poverty: The Role of Education, Training And
TITLE
Employment Strategies in the New Anti-Poverty
Struggle.
INSTITUTION
Employment and Training Administration (DJL),
Washington, D.C.
PUB DATE
94
NOTE
120p.
PUB TYPE
Serials (022)
Collected Works
Evaluation Forum; n10 Sum 1994
JOURNAL CIT
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
Adult Basic Education; Adult Education; Change
Strategies; Demography; Economically Disadvantaged;
Economic Research; *Educational Change; Educational
Needs; Educational Research; *Education Work
Relationship; Federal Programs; Homeless People;
Information Sources; *Job Training; Outcomes of
Education; Policy Formation; *Poverty; Poverty
Programs; Program Effectiveness; Public Policy;
Research Reports; Resource Materials; *Role of
Education; State Programs; *Vocational Education;
Welfare Recipients; Welfare Services; Youth
Programs
Job Training Partnership Act 1982; *Welfare Reform
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This document, which is directed toward employment
and training professionals analyzing/researching policies and issues
in education, occupational training, work and welfare, and economic
development, contains feature articles, commentary, interviews, and
other ;.nformation on the role of education, training, and employment
strategies in reducing poverty in the United States. The following
feature articles are included: "The Poor in America," "A Perspective
on Poverty: Christopher Jencks," "Reducing Poverty: General
Approaches," "Inner-City Ghetto Poverty: A Re-Examination,"
"Contemporary Work/Welfare Strategies: The First Generation," "Second
Generation Work/Welfare Strategies," "Another Look at Work/Welfare
Programs," "What Are We Learning about Homelessness?" "The Homeless
and JTPA Job Training Partnership Act," and "The Department of
Labor's Study of Homelessness." Also included are the following:
commentary by Secretary of Labor Robert Reich; interviews with
Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan and David Ellwood; review of a book
on the evolution of European welfare states; analyses/reviews of
Washington State's Family Independence Program, state welfare reform
efforts within the JOBS [Job Opportunities and Basic Skills]
framework, and current welfare positions; extensive table detailing
research on work force issues sponsored by the U.S. Congress and 6
federal departments/agencies; index to information on federal
reseai-h; and bibliography listing 133 books, articles, and working
papers on poverty issues.
(MN)
Evaluation Forum
American Poverty: The Role of Education,
Training and Employment Strategies in
the New Anti-Poverty Struggle
U.S. Department of Labor
Employment and Training Administration
Issue 10, Summer 1994
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
U
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2
Editor and Reviewer
Material contained in this publica-
Evaluation Forum is a national jour-
Ann Bonar Blalock
tion is in the public domain and may
nal for program professionals in re-
Admiralty Inlet Consulting
be reproduced, fully or partiallly,
lated human service fields: basic
Hansville, Washington
without permission of the Federal
education, vocational education,
Government. Source credit is re-
employment and training, welfare,
Guest Reviewers
quired only to reproduce any copy-
labor market and labor force
Ernst W. Stromsdorfer
righted material contained herein.
change, and economic develop-
Department of Economics
ment. The purpose of the journal is
Washington State University
This material will be made available
to stimulate interest in policy analy-
Pullman, Washington
to sensory impaired individuals
sis, policy research and program
Kay Thode
upon request.
evaluation as useful tools for
Welfare Consultant
Voice phone: [phone]
policymaking, planning and the im-
Seattle, Washington
provement of social programs. It is
TDD* phone: [phone]
Technical Services
understood that the ideas and opin-
Kathleen Shankman
ions expressed in the contont of the
*Telecommunications Device for the
Center for Governmental Studies
Deaf.
journal are those of the respective
Northern Illinois University
writers and do not necessarily rep-
De Kalb, Illinois
r.-3er, those of the funder or these
of the contributing public interest
organizations.
Sponsor and Fuider
Office of Planning and Research
Employment and Training
Administration
U.S. Department of Labor
Contributors to Journal
Distribution
National Governors' Association
Washington, D.C.
National Association of Counties
Washington, D.C.
National Alliance of Business
Washington, D.C.
3
Evaluation Forum
American Poverty: The Role of Education,
Training and Employment Strategies
in the New Anti-Poverty Struggle
Issue 10, Summer 1994
U.S. Department of Labor
Robert B. Reich, Secretary
Employment and Training Administration
Doug Ross, Assistant Secretary
Office of Planning and Research
Raymond J. Uhalde, Deputy Assistant Secretary
A review journal for employment and training professionals
focusing on policy analysis and evaluation research in
education, occupational training, work and welfare,
and economic development.
4
Table of Contents
Poverty in America: A Context
Features
The Poor in America
2
An overview of alarming information about the nature of poverty in the 1990s,
based on reports produced by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the U.S. General
Accounting Office, the Children's Defense Fund, the Center for the Study of
Social Policy, the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, and the Institute for
Research on Poverty.
A Perspective on Poverty: Christopher Jencks
8
An intensive review of Christopher Jencks's competent research on poverty
and provocative conclusions about anti-poverty policy, with an emphasis on
his latest book, Rethinking Social Policy.
Reducing Poverty: General Approaches
14
A summary and analysis of the positions of two respected policy experts,
Robert Greenstein and Theda Skoc pol, on ameliorating the high level of
American poverty, based on their contributions to The Urban Underclass.
The Underclass Poor
Inner-City Ghetto Poverty: A Re-Examination
17
A synthesis of research and expert opinion on underclass poverty drawing
from William Julius Wilson's most recent book The Ghetto Underclass, with
particular attention to the impact of joblessness, income inequality, single
parenthood and cultural isolation, and to Wilson's recommendations for
addressing the problems of the underclass in American society.
The Welfare System Poor
Contemporary Work/Welfare Strategies. The First Generation
22
A reconsideration of the chronology of work/welfare approaches since the
1960s, concentrating on the results of the 1980s research on state initiatives
funded by The Ford Foundation and participating states, and conducted by the
Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.
Second Generation Work/Welfare Strategies
26
A review and analysis of Judith Gueron's and Edward Pauly's classic, From
Welfare to Work, culling insights from evaluations of more recent state work/
welfare innovations which have contributed to the development of the national
JOBS program.
Another Look at Work/Welfare Programs
29
Providing another perspective on the effectiveness of work/welfare programs,
a review of selected contributions to Charles Manski's and Irwin Garfinkel's
recent book, Evaluating Welfare and Training Programs, based on a national
evaluation conference sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services and the Institute for Research on Poverty at the University of
Wisconsin.
.
.
Evaluation Forum
Summar 1994
Issue 10
The Homeless Poor
What Are We Learning About Homelessness?
33
A careful look at recent research on homelessness and its implications for
social policy.
The Homeless and JTPA
35
A discussion of the design and results of the National Commission for
Employment Policy's study of the role JTPA is playing in improving the
employment opportunities of the homeless.
The Department of Labor's Study of Homelessness
38
An overview of the major findings of the U.S. Department of Labor's
evaluation of the Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration Program.
Commentary
42 A Commentary by Secretary of Labor Robert Reich
A significant perspective on workforce policy, a macro-level context for the
development of anti-poverty policy.
An Interview with Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan
45
Interviews
Views on the causes and consequences of poverty and the history of efforts to
reduce it, focusing on the Senator's ideas in his landmark book, Family and
Nation, and recent articles on anti-poverty policy by this powerful chair of the
Senate Finance Committee.
An Interview with David Ellwood
51
A discussion of the results of his extensive research on poverty, emphasizing
ideas in his well-known book, Poor Support: Poverty and the American
Family, and his current thinking about welfare reform as co-chair of the
Clinton Administration's welfare reform task force.
Evaluation Issues
At the International Level
The Evolution of European Welfare States
and Activities
57
A selective review of Allan Cochrane's and John Clarke's recent acclaimed
book, Comparing Welfare States, analyzing the new trends in welfare policy in
Western Europe.
6
-=111
4111111110111
.
.
Issue 10
Evaluation Forum
Summer 1994
iii
At the National, State and Local Level
Washington State's Family Independence Program: An Economic
64
Interpretation of Its Impact
A guest analysis by Ernst Stromsdorfer of The Urban Institute's evaluation of
an innovative Washington State welfare reform project, with an introductory
context on Washington State poverty by guest reviewer Kay Thode.
State Welfare Reform Efforts Within the JOBS Framework
70
A review of evaluations of new welfare reform models associated with the
JOBS program, and their implications for national welfare reform.
Reform 'Welfare' or Reform 'Welfare Reform'?
75
A guest analysis by Kay Thode of Laurence Lynn's singularly independent
and useful perspectives on current welfare reform positions, and a commentary
on potential problems with new welfare reform approaches.
Resources
Selected Federal Research: In Education, Training,
Employment and Economic Development
A new section of Evaluation Forum looking across federal agencies sponsoring
reseaich on workforce issues.
80 U.S. Department of Labor
86 National Commission for Employment Policy
89 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
92 U.S. Department of Education
97 U.S. Department of Commerce
99 U.S. Department of Agriculture
100 U.S. Congress
104 Private Research Firms: An Exemplar
108 Index to Information on Federal Research
New Concern About Poverty:
rty: A Renaissance in
Poverty Research?
Books, articles and working papers on poverty issues.
109 On Poverty
110 On Welfare
111 On Homelessness
112 International Resources
7
1111Ml
.
Evaluation Forum
Issue 10
iv
Summar 1994
Features
Addressing Some of the Questions
made their situations worse because in-
Editorial Introduction
dividuals had less time for parenting
Danziger and Weinberg drew the fol-
and related responsibilities with little or
In the spring of 1992, the Institute lowing profile of poverty over the past
no increase in family income. At the
for Research on Poverty and the Office fifty years: 1) non-Hispanic whites have
same time, high benefit reduction rates
of the Assistant Secretary for Planning lower poverty rates than blacks, His-
caused work effort to decline for those
panics and other minority groups;
and Evaluation in the U.S. Department
on AFDC, since added work produced
of Health and Human Services spon- adults in the prime years have lower
little gain in net income.
sored a national conference to evaluate poverty rates than children and the eld-
Programs emphasizing job search
policy efforts addressing poverty and its
erly; men have lower poverty rates than
assistance , the authors say, produced
women; and married-couple families
correlates. The papers prepared for the
modest employment and income gains
conference were published in book have lower poverty rates than female-
among female AFDC recipients. Small
headed families. The only exception to
form by Harvard University Press in
returns to society from some employ-
the durability of this profile was the shift
1993 as Poverty and Public Policy:
in poverty after 1973 from the elderly to ment programs exceeded their costs.
What Do We Know? What Should We
But these programs did not move many
children. Economic growth traditionally
Do? The editors were three well -re-
families out of poverty. On the other
spected poverty researchers, Sheldon
affected these trends, but Increasingly
hand, tax credits helped 10% of the
Danziger, Gary Sandefur and Daniel such growth matters less because of in-
poor to escape poverty. Researchers
creased income inequality.
Weinberg. Insights from the book were
also felt that public service employment
summarized in the Winter 1992-1993
American poverty policy has always
produced incremental long-term bene-
issue of Focus, the Institute's journal.
been less redistributive than policies in
fits for white and minority women, but
A number of important themes and other industrial nations. We have typi-
this strategy was eliminated under polit-
ideas permeate this excellent book cally tolerated higher poverty rates be-
ical pressure.
which may help frame the articles in cause of our central political belief that
this Features Section. One theme is government should not intervene in the Medicaid greatly improved access to
that the persistence and growth of pov- health care for the poor, but a substan-
market. Over the period of the 1940s to
erty since the 1960s does not mean tial proportion of the poor were not cov-
1960s, economic growth had a direct
that anti-poverty efforts failed. Poverty ered and resources for other medical
effect on poverty, and strong growth
had a significant effect. But economic programs declined over time. With sub-
remains a major problem in America
because of the changes in the econo- stantial evidence that education is criti-
growth has not been robust since 1973.
my during the past three decades at a
cal to movement out of poverty, educa-
It has not produced as many low-skill
tional vouchers and merit pay for
time when public policy interest in the
jobs with adequate wages to sustain
poor was declining. Some programs did families. Despite this change and our teachers were tested and found not to
increase educational opportunities for
fail, the authors acknowledge. But
continuing political ideology, the au-
some were very successful. No doubt
thors claim that a combination of cash the poor or energize teaching efforts.
others were poorly conceived. And
and non-cash benefits for the poor But Head Start was quite successful.
some were well-designed but did not clearly reduced poverty, nonmonetary The development of state-based enter-
affect enough people to make a differ-
prise zones, on the other hand, had
benefits in particular.
mixed effects. New businesses in the
ence.
Because of the slowing of economic
zones did not produce large increases
Another theme is the belief that we
growth, however, Danziger and Wein-
in aggregate employment or economic
must use the renewed interest in re-
berg conclude that anti- poverty strate-
activity. With such mixed reviews, it has
solving poverty to develop a new anti-
gies in the form of employment pro-
been difficult to come to definitive con-
poverty agenda. We must begin, the
grams could be expected to have only
clusions about what worked best and
editors insist, with the lessons we
a limited effect. They suggest that
for whom.
learned over the past three decades of
changes in welfare policy over the past
research, and subsequently answer
The Future for Poverty Research
two decades have focused more on in-
and Policy
questions such as these: 1) what is
creasing the poor's work effort than on
the extent of contemporary poverty,
improving their earnings potential.
The book goes far beyond this very
2) how effective are current anti-poverty
Meanwhile the decline in the purchas-
brief summary of ideas to review and
programs, 3) how should we reform
ing power of AFDC benefits made these
comment on several decades of re-
and expand anti-poverty policies and
benefits a less attractive option. The
search and policy recommendations.
programs, and 4) what are the political
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of
The contributors make the assumption
constraints within which anti-poverty
1981, expressing Reagan poverty poli-
that this body of knowledge has given
policy must be formulated in the
cy, tightened AFDC eligibility. This in-
us enough Information to identify the
1990s? creased work incentives for those re-
general directions future anti-poverty
moved from the rolls but simultaneously
.
Evaluation Forum
Issue 10 Summer 1994
1
. The Poor In America
Features
al issue territories of past poverty re- bad idea. Maybe it might have
policy should take in seeking major
bad
search. They involve larger-scale initia-
an Impact if we were to modify it
gains regarding equity, efficiency, self-
tives. They require an elevated level of in this direction or expand it in
sufficiency, responsibility and dignity.
conceptual and pragmatic risk-taking. that direction, or supplement it
Some experts recommended abol-
with the following services or
ishing the current welfare system alto-
Some of the researchers writing in
mandates, or double or triple
get ter, starting over with a package of
the book worry that the poverty re-
the magnitude of Its Intensity or
search community might not be able to
alternative programs. Some suggested
the size of its incentive ...
home- ownership strategies, subsidized
break out of its mold sufficiently to con-
asset accounts In place of welfare ben- sider new Issues and alternatives. They This perspective Is reminiscent of
efits, and universal youth capital ac-
cite a certain pessimism on the part of Christopher Jencks's admonition that in
counts. Others thought a National Ur-
other societies the view Is that when a
researchers related to finding such
ban Corps should be established, program is not working you try to make
small impacts for most of the strategies
utilizing dislocated military personnel.
studied. Seeing the glass 'part full', oth- it better. In the United States, he says,
Other options were wage subsidies for
ers view past research as pointing in a
we doubt that government can do any-
thing right and therefore assume that If
low-skilled workers and employer-
positive direction to the need for multi-
based marginal employment subsidies
we ought to
ple, concentrated, high-participation ap- a program stumbles
terminate it ... It's like deciding that If
in combination with a refundable tax
proaches that can yield larger results.
credit. Some researchers felt we should babies get sick they should be thrown
Robert Haveman and Isabel Sawhill,
address the imbalance in poverty rates
away."
referring to the destructive nature of a
between the elderly and children by re-
We are not likely to throw away what
"magic bullet mentality" obsessed with
designing Social Security as an in-
remarkable
strategy
we have learned. The challenge is to
identifying that one
come-related program, by fully funding
that will solve the problem, suggest: use these lessons in crafting new poli-
Head Start and high quality day care,
cy. In the articles that follow, new direc-
Why isn't a superior viewpoint
and by enriching schools through great-
tions do emerge. First we provide a
[one in which we say] we have
er parental commitment and invest-
context,
then we focus on the under-
tried intervention X and it
ment.
class poor, the welfare poor, and the
doesn't seem to have much of
policy changes ex-
These potential
homeless poor.
effect, but by golly it's not a
an
tend
considerably beyond the tradition-
Poverty In America: A Context
Ns
The Poor in America
The main increase in poverty was
low-skilled work and a weakening of
among whites and Hispanics, and large-
labor unions as partial causes for the
ly in the Northeast. Poverty rose for
statistics. Other experts criticized the
We begin the Feature Section with a
children and the elderly, and inside
Bureau's method for defining poverty,
selective overview of information about
metropolitan areas. The greatest de-
which did not include noncash benefits
contemporary poverty in the United
crease in income occurred among white
such as Food Stamps, Medicaid and
States, and some of the general conclu-
men, in the Northeast and West, ethnic
public housing, and was not affected by
sions emerging from poverty research.
differences appearing to be related to
owning a house or car.
geography. Since 71% of African
Recent Poverty Statistics
In 1992, the first full year following
Americans live outside the Northeast
the end of the recession, the Bureau re-
The Census Bureau's fall 1993 re-
and West, where the recession had the
ported that 36.9 million Americans
port on poverty and income provided
most dramatic impact, they were less
lived in poverty. Of the 1.2 million
the first detailed look at some of the ef-
affected. On the other hand, a larger
who fell into poverty in 1993, 276,000
fects of the recession that began half
percentage of poor black families than
were under eighteen, a poverty rate for
way through 1990. By official stan-
of white and Hispanic families were
children of 21.9%. For those under age
dards, 2.1 million more Americans
headed by an unmarried woman. These
six the rate was 25%; for preschool
were living in poverty in 1990 than in
households were more likely to receive
children in households headed by sin-
1989. The poverty rate rose to 13.5%
welfare benefits and less likely to have
gle women it was 65.9%. This contrast-
from 12.8% in 1989, and median annu-
lost income due to recessionary lay-
ed with a rate of 14.5% for Americans
al household income fell 1.7% to
offs.
of all ages.
$29,943. The number of Americans liv-
Robert Greenstein, director of the
ing in poverty had increased for the
It is important to understand that the
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities,
third year in a row. One out of every
in the number of poor children
increase
commenting on the Census Bureau's
seven now had an income below the
occurred in families headed by married
analysis, pointed to declining wages for-
or
poverty line. The number of poor was
couples and those headed by single
at its highest level since 1964.
men. In homes with single women, the
Evaluation Forum
2
.
Issue 10
Summer 1994
The Poor In America
Features
.
crimes had risen by 48%. Using a new
number of children in poverty de- uted to the near doubling of the per-
family risk index, analysts
centage of young families headed by a
measure,
creased by 33,000. Still, the youngest
a
single parent, which had risen to 37% found that 45% of the children born to
Americans were most at risk in house-
new families had one of three disad-
holds headed by single women and at
in 1991.
vantages: their mother had not finished
highest risk in households headed by
Overall, incomes dropped 32% and
high school, was not married, or was a
black women. This was due, in part, to
the child poverty rate was now 40%,
teenager. Twenty-four percent of the
the fact that whites and Asian Ameri-
the Fund maintained. This was viewed
new families had two of these disad-
cans were better educated and earned
as a product of the increase in single
vantages and 11% had all three. In each
more than African Americans and His-
parent families, but also of eroding
category, minorities fared worse than
panics in 1992, and therefore were
wages and declining government wel-
more likely to move out of poverty.
others.
fare and unemployment benefits. The
The poverty rate for whites was 11.6%;
Meanwhile, the Census Bureau was
conclusion of the report was that pover-
for Asian Americans 12.5%; for His-
reporting that more than a third of all
ty among children had spread alarming-
panics 29.3%; and for African Ameri-
American youth aged fifteen to seven-
ly in the 1980s, not only in large urban
cans 33.3%. The Bureau predicted a de-
teen had either dropped out of school
centers but in smaller cities as well. A
cline in these rates with the end of the
or were at least one grade level behind
similar state-by-state analysis revealed
recession.
their cohort. The rate for these contin-
that approximately 18% of children, on
average, lived in families earning less gencies rose from 29.1% in 1980 to
Child Poverty
34.8% in 1990. Thirty- two percent of
than poverty-level incomes in 1989.
The Children's Defense Fund star-
white students fell into this category;
The Fund's report also reminded us
tled us in 1993 with their annual report
48% of blacks; 48.6% of Hispanics.
that in 1992 the rich got richer. Nearly
claiming that young families with chil-
The differences began appearing with 9
half of national family income went to
dren had less money now than their
to 11 year-olds and continued through-
the top fifth of families, while 4.4%
counterparts a generation ago, and suf-
out high school.
went to the poorest fifth. Meanwhile,
fered from child poverty rates twice as
the United Nations' Children's Fund
Never-Married Mothers
high even though they were better edu-
concluded that one-fifth of American
cated than their predecessors. About
And there were statistical surprises.
children lived below the poverty line
half of all American children, the Fund
In the summer of 1993, the Census Bu-
four times the rate of most industri-
indicated, were born into families head-
reau reported a sharp increase in never-
alized nations, and twice that of Great
ed by a parent under thirty. In 1990 the
married mothers
an increase of 60%
Britain.
annual incomes of such families fell
over the past decade. This increase was
32.1%. Incomes for families with older
Irrespective of the social policy de-
particularly steep for educated profes-
bates swirling around the definition of
heads fell more modestly, by 6.4%, and
sional women. The rate for black wom-
poverty, as well as its causes and ef-
families without children experienced a
en rose to 56% from 49% a decade ear-
rise in income of 11.2% over the same
fects, the 1993 reports from the Census
lier; the rate for Hispanic women rose
Bureau and the Children's Defense
period. Incomes for young families
to 33% from 23% over that period. Al-
Fund were sobering. Marian Wright
headed by individuals who had some
though women who were poor, unedu-
amount of college education fell 15%;
Edelman, the president of the Fund,
cated or members of minority groups
for those headed by a high school grad-
commented that the new statistics
were still more likely to become single
would translate to "more substance
uate they fell 30%; and for those head-
mothers, and their rates were rising, the
ed by a high school drop-out they
abuse, more school failure, more teen
increase in single parenthood among
plummeted 46%. Only those families
pregnancy, more racial tension, more
white educated women who had never
headed by a college graduate saw a rise
envy, more despair, and more cynicism
married was more dramatic. The impli-
a long-term economic and social di-
but only a 3% rise.
in income
cations for anti-poverty strategies were
saster."
The suggestion was that young fami-
significant. Social norms discouraging
lies today are more likely to be black or In the spring of 1993, the Center for single motherhood were crumbling
Hispanic, and these groups have lower
the Study of Social Policy released its
across class and ethnic lines. With the
average earnings than whites as a func-
Kids Count Data Book, an annual pro-
exception of Japan, the same trend was
tion of lower official educational at-
file of American children, Surveying occurring in other industrialized de-
tainment and continuing discrimina-
child well-being in ten areas of life
mocracies.
tion. The percentage of young families quality, the report found conditions
Poverty-Related Studies by the
with children headed by nonwhite par-
worsening in six of these areas. The
U.S. General Accounting Office
ents rose to 35% in 1991 from 23% in
data on teen-age youth were particular-
(GAO)
1974. Poverty rates, the Fund claimed,
ly disturbing. Births to single mothers
had risen to 23.8% for children in
had grown, as had the percentage of
In their 1992 report, Poverty Trends
young white families; 43.5% for those
children not graduating from high
1980-1988: Changes in Family Com-
in Hispanic families; and 57.9% for
school and the percentage dying violent
position and income Sources Among
those in black families. This was attrib-
deaths. The arrest rate for violent
the Poor, the GAO indicated that the
.
Evaluation Forum
Issue 10
Summer 1994
.
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