ERIC ED370585: Analog, Not Digital: Roots of Visual Literacy and Visual Intelligence.

11 Pages·1993·0.38 MB·English

by  ERIC

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ED 370 585
IR 055 038
AUTHOR
Messaris, Paul
TITLE
Analog, Not Digital: Roots of Visual Literacy and
Visual Intelligence.
PUB DATE
93
NOTE
Ilp.; In: Visual Literacy in the Digital Age:
Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the
International Visual Literacy Association (25th,
Rochester, New York, October 13-17, 1993); see IR 055
055.
PUB TYPE
Information Analyses (070)
Speeches/Conference
Papers (150)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*Cognitive Processes; *Communication (Thought
Transfer); Editing; Film Production; 7ilms;
*Intelligence; *Symbolism; Television Viewing;
Thinking Skills; Visual Learning; *Visual Literacy
IDENTIFIERS
*Analogical Imagery; *Digital Imagery
ABSTRACT
Communication theorists often make a distinction
between two different ways in which a sign or a symbol can evoke
meaning. In digital representation, the symbol's domain of reference
is conceptually carved up into discrete units represented by purely
arbitrary symbols. In analogical representation, the symbol retains a
continuous correspondence with one or more dimensions of its
referent. Recent scholarship has tended to emphasize the digital
side, but this paper draws attention to aspects of analogical
representation, arguing that the mental process through which viewers
derive meaning from pictures is often based on implicit analogical
thinking. Analogical thinking seems to play a major role in the
evocation of meaning through e!jstract qualities and the control of
the viewer's emotional engagement through point of view. The most
obvious locus of analogical significance in film and television may
be in editing. Analogical implications are central to a wide array of
visual devices, and it is possible that in learning to make
sense of
visual communication, we also acquire an enhanced facility in
analogical thinking. (Contains 38 references.) (SLD)
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Analog, Not Digital:
Roots of Visual Literacy
and
Visual Intelligence
by Paul Messaris
Annenberg School
University of Pennsylvania
3620 Walnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6220
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
Alice Walker
2
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
BEST COPY AVMLABLE
Analog, Not Digital:
Roots of Visual Literacy and
Visual Intelligence
Paul Messaris
paper aims
to
draw
What is the cognitive basis of a
This
1990).
attention back to certain aspects of
ability to comprehend the
viewer's
in
which
communication
visual
meaning of a picture? Communication
often make a
analogical representation seems to play
distinction
theorists
an important role.
the
Specifically,
between two different ways in which a
paper will argue that the mental process
sign or symbol can evoke meaning: on
by which viewers derive meaning from
the one hand, digital representation, in
is often based on implicit
pictures
which the symbol's domain of reference
analogical thinking.
is conceptually "carved up" into discrete
units which are represented by purely
Discussions of the analogical aspects
arbitrary symbols; and, on the other'
representation
typically
of
visual
in
representation,
analogical
hand,
concentrate on the manifest content of
which the symbol retains a continuous
correspondence with one or more
images: the objects, events, or situations
depicted in them. Although visual
(A
referent.
of
its
dimensions
to
done
much
has
scholarship
particularly lucid presentation of this
undermine the popular assumption that
distinction has been given by Bateson
pictures are simply direct replicas of the
[1972], but variant formulations occur in
appearances of real-world phenomena
a wide spectrum of theoretical writings,
Snyder,
Krieger,
(see
1980;
originating as far back as the work of
1984;
are,
there
1984),
Wartofsky,
Hume [1977] and Peirce [1991].)
nonetheless, good reasons for believing
of
the
manifest
that
recognition
visual
in
scholarship
Recent
pictorial content is a prime example of
tended
to
has
communication
side of this
analogical communicational processes
emphasize the
digital
(see Messaris, 1993, 1994).
distinction, focusing on technological
developments in the coding of visual
However, the focus of this paper is
of
digital
for
purposes
images
not ou manifest content but on the
manipulation, storage, or transmission
more implicit, indirect meanings of
(e.g., see Bossen, 1985; Lasica, 1989;
images: the tone or affect that a picture
Mitchell, 1992; Reaves, 1989; Ritchin,
color (see Homer, 1964; Lee, 1990;
than
rather
the
it
things
evokes,
represents directly. In particular, this
Weale, 1982).
discussion will be concerned with the
The explicit basis of Seurat's theory
the
(1)
analogical
implications
of:
composition of single images; and (2)
the
that
assumption
was
viewers
respond to the abstract features of
the juxtaposition of images through
visual composition on the basis of
editing. Because the scope of this paper
unconsciously perceived analogies to
space
limited
necessarily
by
is
constraints, the examination of these
elements of real-world experience. For
issues will seek only to illustrate some
a
that
Seurat
example,
believed
major points, rather than to provide an
wedge-like shape pointing toward the
exhaustive catalog of forms of visual
top of the canvas would evoke both
dynamism, because of the association
analogy.
with the properties of sharp edges in
other
Visual Composition
or
implements,
and
knives
buoyancy, because of the association
As I am using the term here, analogy
with upward movement in general.
refers to cases in which a symbel
reproduces a distinctive feature of its
Thus, in his execution of scenes in
referent
of
that
virtue
and,
by
these
qualities
which
an
were
reproduction, comes
appropriate part of the tone he was
to
evoke
the
referent's qualities. There are at least
trying to convey, he would incorporate
two, relatively distinct aspects of visual
upward-pointing wedge shapes in the
composition
in
which
analogical
composition even in places in which a
symbolism seems to play a major role:
more
strictly
naturalistic
rendition
on the one hand, the evocation of
would not have called for them. This
clearly evident in such
meaning through the abstract qualities
practice
is
of shapes; and, on the other hand,
paintings as "Le Cirque" (1891) and "Le
of the
Chahut"
in
which
control
( 18 90),
emotional
viewer's
engagement by means of point of view.
upward-pointing tapers are added to the
facial features of a circus acrobat, in the
Abstract Shapes
former case, and a line of high-stepping
dancers, in the latter.
Systematic exploration of the affective
meanings of shapes (as opposed to the
Since
the
of
Seurat's
days
actual
or
incidents
personalities
experiments, this kind of compositional
depicted in a visual image) has a
device has become a regular feature in
certain
considerable history, both in the area of
areas
of
mass-mediated
art and in that of advertising and other
image-maYing, most notably, perhaps, in
of
forms
deliberately
manipulative
advertising. In particular, the idea that
Among
imagery.
painters
in
the
wedge-shaped forms evoke energy or
Western fine-arts tradition, an especially
dynamism has clearly taken hold among
noteworthy investigator of these matters
designers of print ads for sports-related
was Georges Seurat, who eventually
products, in which it is quite common to
developed a detailed theory concerning
encounter triangular logos, triangular
the evocative properties of line and
or other
frames,
triangular
design
3 /N
4
Point of View
elements.
The second aspect of composition
the
evocative
Not
surprisingly,
that will be examined here is point of
properties of these and other shapes
view. The general principle here may be
have been tested by several researchers,
expressed as follows: By controlling the
with an eye not only on advertising uses
the
but also on applications to industrial
positioning
viewer's
vis-a-vis
characters, objects, or events in an
design (Eve, 1983). The work of these
image (including the image sequences
researchers supports the assumption
of film or television), the image's
that viewers respond in the expected
producer can elicit responses which
ways to the abstract qualities of shapes
have been conditioned by the viewer's
even when these shapes arc presented
equivalent
experience
of
without any context. In other words, we
interrelationships with real-life people,
have evidence here that analogy does
things, and actions.
indeed work.
This kind of analogical connection is
Of course, it might be objected that
probPbly most clearly evident in the
the viewers in these studies are typically
well-worn cliche of filming someone
people with extensive prior experience
of visual media and that it
from a low angle to make her or him
this
is
appear more imposing, but the most
experience, rather than the real-world
frequent use of camera positioning as
associations of shapes or other design
elements, which has conditioned their
an analogical device is undoubtedly that
It
which occurs when the distance (real or
to
these
responses
devices.
is
therefore worth noting that a major
apparent) between the camera and its
subject is employed as a means of
cross-cultural
visual
study of
composition found strong evidence that
modulating the viewer's identification or
involvement with the characters or
certain aspects of composition
curved
for example,
events on the screen.
or
straight
lines,
vs.
are
symmetry
asymmetry
vs.
associated with similar connotations
In other words, here we are dealing
with a variable which is in virtually
across a wide spectrum of unrelated
constant use in many movies and TV
cultures
see
(Fischer, also
1961;
programs and is, indeed, one of the
Hatcher, 1988).
principal visual means for such effects
Since these cultures did not share a
as heightening the intensity of a scene
tradition, it
pictorial
the
common
towards
as moves
its
climax,
assumption that what we are seeing
maintaining the viewer's sympathy with
the hero and emotional distance from
here is a manifestation of the workings
of analogy can perhaps be made more
secondary
releasing
the
characters,
tension of a scene or of the movie as a
confidently in this case. In other words,
whole following the resolution of the
it seems likely that these findings reflect
a common response to certain basic
action, etc.
visual dimensions in the experience of
most or all human beings (cf. Bang,
Because of the analogy between the
role of camera-to-subject distance in
1991).
such instances and the function of
speed and
through the visual style
abruptness vs. smoothness and a more
interpersonal distance as a regulator of
are mere abstractions,
even pace
intimacy and involvement in real-life
without any necessary embodiment in
social relationships, Meyrowitz (1986)
of visual
the person of a fast-moving male or a
aspect
this
labelled
has
gentle female.
manipulation "paraproxemics."
It might appear that the ability to
Although it might seem that the
perceive an analogy of this sort, with
devices encompassed by this label, i.e.,
such an attenuated relationship between
dramatic
things
close-ups,
as
such
the image and its meaning, must be a
zoom-ins to a significant object, camera
pull-backs as a movie ends, and so
formidable intellectual task, requiring
consideable
in
prior
forth, must be excessively obvious to
experience
However, in a
most mature viewers, in fact there is
abstract
reasoning.
evidence that even highly educated
follow-up study to the one by Welch
people with an interest in visual media,
and her colleagues, Huston et al. (1984)
but no directly-relevant education or
found that even quite young children
the
gender
are able
infer
practical
to
experience, generally were
unaware of these
of things
orientation of an ad on the basis of the
kinds
kinds of abstract features mentioned
(Galan, 1986). This finding suggests that
the area of paraproxemics would be a
above.
any attempt
at
target
in
suitable
One possible way to look at this
of
the
literacy
enhancing
visual
finding is as an indication of how
members of the general public.
the
experienced
thoroughly
in
"language" of television most young
Image Juxtaposition
children are these days.
It
also
is
conceivable, however, that the ability to
Editing Rhythm
perceive
analogies
visual
such
is
Perhaps the most obvious locus of
derivative of broader cognitive skills
in film and
analogical
which are not specific to any particular
signification
mode of communication, since very
television is the area of editing rhythm.
similar analogical processes appear to
Consider, for example, the following: In
operate in at least one other mode,
of
the
a
notable
formal
study
of TV commercials
music (see Meyer, 1956; also Kivy,
chai acteristics
aimed at children, Welch et al. (1979)
1988).
argued
with
supportive
strongly
The use of editing to evoke such
that the appeal to
empirical evidence
conventional conceptions of masculinity
aspects of gender imagery as abruptness
vs. smoothness may be seen as a
in commercials aimed at boys should be
evident in such stylistic devices as fast
specific application of a more extensive
editing and the use of straight cuts,
and frequently-encountered category of
devices, having to do with
while commercials for girls should be
editing
temporal rhythm and its
characterized by slower editing and
associated
relatively greater use of Tad..3 and
moods. The fact that editing rhythm
dissolves. Here the meanings conveyed
can, in and of itself, affect a viewer's
Confronted with a juxtaposition of this
perceptions of the events or characters
sort, a viewer must not only be sensitive
in a film or video sequence, making
of
implications
the
analogical
them appear more or less dynamic, to
individual images but must also be able
powerful, etc., has been demonstrated
to link two (or more) images on the
comprehensive
in
systematically
basis of those implications.
experiments by Kraft (1986) and Penn
(1971); and, indeed, we should be
the
implied
In
Ichikawa's
film,
surprised if it were otherwise, since that
of the
the
focus
sole
would mean that the innumerable
is
analogy
juxtaposition between the two images,
editors who have used such devices
and a similar singularity of purpose has
have been laboring under a massive
been characteristic of some of the
collective delusion. Although such uses
better-known instances of analogy-based
of editing are extremely common, they
juxtaposition in the history of film
are by no means the only forms
of
editing -- e.g., Eisenstein's cross-cutting
cinematic or video image-juxtaposition
workers being
striking
between
apparently based on analogy.
massacred by government troops and
a
butchered
in
being
animals
Analogical Juxtaposition of Images
slaughterhouse (in "Strike," 1925) or
cross-cutting
Hitchcock's
Alfred
A rather different form of analogical
between a sex scene and exploding
editing is best introduced through an
fireworks (in 'To Catch a Thief," 1955).
example. Towards the end of Kon
Ichikawa's 'The Makioka Sisters" (a
Perhaps more frequently, however,
Japanese film made in 1983), there is a
to be
connections tend
analogical
scene in which an unmarried woman,
embedded less obtrusively in editing
a
of
series
endured
has
who
that also serves a narrative function, as
disappointing attempts at third-party
is the case in two of the most-analyzed
match-making, finally meets a suitor she
of image
form
of
this
examples
fmds attractive. As she faces this man
juxtaposition: the direct cut from a
for the first time, Ichikawa's camera
burning match to a fiery desert sunrise,
goes from a shot of her to a shot of
in David Lean's "Lawrence of Arabia"
with red colors
wind-ruffled foliage
(1962); and the transition from a proto-
prominent -- in the window behind her.
human throwing a bone/axe into the
air, to a space-station in orbit above the
By itself, this latter shot can be seen
as an extension of the
Earth, in Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A
analogical
earlier
in
Space Odyssey" (1968).
discussed
principles
and
the
Seurat
with
connection
As Clifton (1983) has argued, this
composition of individual images: The
kind of merging of analogical and
shot's vibrant movement and its warm
elements may make the
narrative
color are both fairly straightforward
analogy less obvious to viewers than it
analogues for the emotions that this
of
analogical
purely
cases
scene was presumably designed
in
to
is
juxtaposition, and there is indeed some
convey. However, the presence of the
evidence that the ability to discern the
editing adds an element that is absent
extra-narrative implications in editing
of
the
images.
case
single
from
equivalent of the linguistic metaphor.
combining analogy and narrative may
(By extension, the other forms of
require
skills
special
visual-literacy
analogical juxtaposition examined here
(Messaris & Nielsen, 1989).
could be thought of as visual similes.)
only on analogy,
based
Editing
without a narrative component, has
Conclusions
become quite rare in mainstream fiction
We have
seen
that
film and television, but, as Prince (1990)
analogical
has pointed out, it appears to be gaining
implications of various kinds are central
ingredients of a wide variety of visual
popularity in some forms of advertising.
In particular, it has become a staple of
devices, including: graphic composition
in still images (shapes, lines, colors,
political ads and videos, such as Ronald
Reagan's 1984 campaign film, Me
etc.); camera placement vis-a-vis the
Presidency" (see Morreale, 1991, for a
subject of an image; rhythm in film or
TV editing;
and juxtapositions
of
detailed analysis).
visually or conceptually related images
Juxtaposition based on visual or
in film, television, or print. The more
general point that emerges from this
conceptual analogy between two images
discussion is that the ability to discern
is also very common in print advertising.
For example, automotive advertisers
an analogical connection between an
their
featured
products
have
in
image and its referent, or among two or
association with lions (a Toyota ad
more
an
important
images,
is
emphasizing power and dominance over
component of the set of cognitive skills
the
(an
competition),
skaters
ice
comprising a viewer's visual literacy.
Oldsmobile ad emphasizing smooth
performance and elegant styling), jet
This conclusion also suggests an
airplanes (a Dodge ad emphasizing
intriguing corollary: Could it be that, in
to make sense of visual
speed and power), eagles (a GM ad
learning
emphasizing freedom and ease
communication, we also acquire an
of
and tigers
(the well-known
travel),
enhanced facility in analogical thinking
Exxon series).
(Whittock, 1990)? A parallel connection
has been explored by Salomon, who
Furthermore, there is another, related
examined the possibility of a causal link
category of print advertising that also
between visual literacy and another
makes use of analogy but presents it in
important area of cognition, spatial
a distinctly different form. A case in
intelligence.
point is a National Dairy Board ad in
The empirical
which a glass of milk emerges out of a
evidence on that
peeled banana: The object is to suggest
specific
link
contradictory
is
and
nutritional equivalence, but this analogy
inconclusive (in addition to Salomon,
suggested through a merging or
is
1979, see Forbes & Lonner, 1980, and
blending of the two foods, rather than a
Wachtel, 1984), but it is probably fair to
side-by-side pairing. As Kaplan (1990,
say that Salomon's question has not yet
has
of
been addressed directly, and, in any
suggested,
this
kind
1992)
blending of the two terms of the
event, there appears to be no empirical
analogy can be seen
a visual
as
research, whether direct or otherwise,
Annenberg School for Communication,
here, i.e.,
on the issue that concerns us
University of Pennsylvania.
possibility of a similar causal
the
connection between visual literacy and
Hatcher, E. P. (1988). Visual metaphors:
analogical thinldng. These questions are
stu*
further
visual
A methodological
for
in
candidates
good
Albuquerque:
communication.
investigation, and it is hoped that the
University of New Mexico Press.
to
contlibuted
paper
has
present
suggesting some directions for research
Homer, W. I. (1964). Seurat and the
along these lines.
science of painting. Cambridge, MA:
The M.I.T. Press.
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