ERIC ED365980: Writing to Read: Computer-Assisted Instruction and Reading Achievement.

14 Pages·1993·0.26 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
CS 214 152
ED 365 980
Jones, Zipporah
AUTHOR
Writing to Read: Computer-Assisted Instruction and
TITLE
Reading Achievement.
PUB DATE
[93]
NOTE
14p.
Research/Technical (143)
PUB TYPE
Reports
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Comparative Analysis; *Computer Assisted Instruction;
DESCRIPTORS
Elementary School Students; Grade 3; *High Risk
Students; Minority Group Children; Primary Education;
*Program Effectiveness; *Reading Achievement; Reading
Research; Writing Improvement
Chicago Public Schools IL; Iowa Tests of Basic
IDENTIFIERS
Skills; *Writing to Read Program
ABSTRACT
A study investigated whether statistically
significant differences in reading achievement developed after an
exposure to the Writing to Read (WTR) program. Subjects were 15
third-grade students from a 100% minority population elementary
school on Chicago's west side who were exposed to the Writing to Read
program and 15 students from the same school who were not exposed to
the program. Subjects' reading scores of the Iowa Tests of Basic
Skills were used as pre- and posttests. Results indicated:
(1) no
statistical differences existed between the groups at the beginning
or at the end of the treatment period; and (2) although differences
in reading scores were not statistically significant at the 0.05
level, the WTR program group had a greater mean gain than the control
group's mean gain. (Contains 1 table of data and 19 referenc.es.)
(RS)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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-r
WRITING TO READ:COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUOION AND
READING ACHIEVEMENT
THIS
U S. DEPARTMENT OP EDUCATION
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE
011.ce & Educahona; Pi/march and Improvement
GRANTED BY
MATERIAL HAS BEEN
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
Nkirns document has been (*produced as
Zipporah Jones
eCented from the person or orgarnzahon
onginatIng .1
C Msnor changes have been rnacN to improve
reproduction quility
Points& new a opinions statedin this dOCu-
RESOURCES
TO THE EDUCATIONAL
inent .10 nOt nCSSanly 1.0111111R1 Rft.calt
(ERICr
INFORMATION CENTER
OE RI positiOn Or COliCy
Although the computer is a frequent classroom companion,
not much evidence is available of its benefits in raising the
scores of students.
Iowa Test of Basic Skills
The
(ITBS)
expected benefits for computer assisted instruction,
where
the interaction between the computer and the student, with
oo
the computer adjusting to every response, would be expected
12)
But is this the casc?
to rival those of a personal tutor.
er)
There is little conclusive evidence on the benefits derived
computer
and
pr lifecation
the
increased
from
of
the
Becker (1987) conducted a "best
technology in the classroom.
evidence analysis" of the empirical research on the effects
n learning, and concluded that
of computer-based approaches
existing evidence of computer effectiveness is scanty.
He
stressed the need for further research to compare computer
and traditional instructional approaches.
It is important to determine if benefits accrue to the
students by reason of the proliferation of computers and to
Choices
add to the availa le knowledge of these benefits.
must be made about proa-ams and knowledge to be transmitted
Information
and their value to the student and to society.
integration
effectiveness
of
the
needed
of
on
the
is
which
for
applications
and
software,
hardware,
pr(3raffls
Infurmation is needed on the benefits of
computers ar?.. used.
and
grade
levels,
varied
instruction
areas,
computer
in
advantage
of
take
order full
populations
to
in
student
whatever benefits exist.
k.4
Accurate indicators would help suppress the temptation
to invest in technology for technology's sake or to appear on
and
rational
be
must
Decisions
cutting
c.je.
q5
the
2
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
justified by
expenditures proper
results. The
must
be
information will help Local School Councils, administrators,
teachers and parents make the best decisions about the use of
funds and about the education of their children.
Although research on Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
the proliferation of computers in
has not been conclusive,
elementary
feverish
continues
classroom
pace.
the
at
a
Ninety-eight percent of elementary and secondary schools in
Ten percent
United
States microcomputers.
have
of
the
thirty percent
schools have
students per computer;
to
1
9
have 10 to 19 students per computer; twenty percent have 20
to 30 students per computer; thirteen percent have 30 to 44
students per computer; and twenty-eight percent have 45 or
more students per computer (Quality Educational Data, 1992).
Computer-based instruction has had minimal, measurable
Bv any method of learning
impact on lea=ina achievement.
achievement, or significant cnanges in styles of teaching and
learning, or of curric'ulwa reform, the conclusion is "little
A recent meta-analysis of 184 studies that
or no effect."
examined the effects of computer-assisted instruction reports
standard deviation for the
an overall effect size of
.32
over traditional
instruction
learning
technologies
(MERC,
While this is positive evidence in favor of computers
1993)
.
it does nct realize the potential promised by
in education,
proponents of computer oased *nstruction (Hawkridge, et. al.
1990).
computing
must
be
educattonal
reason
then,
ior
The
Hawkridge (1990) cited
justified,rationalizea in other ways.
thP proliferation of computers in
four basic ratiynales
schools:
Policy makers want to be sure that all
Social rationale
children should be...aware, unafraid of how computers work.
Learners should be prepared to understand computers and be
aware of their role in society.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
is an
Learning to operate computers
Vocational rationale
children...may
Teaching
be
important
competency.
a
foundation for careers in Computer Science.
Students can learn more from
computers.
Pedagogic rationale
There are advantages to using computers
Computers can teach.
over other traditional metl-pds.
be changed for the better
Schools can
Catalytic rationale
become
Computers
computers.
introduction
of
by
the
a
They symbols
facilitating factor to br_ag about change.
a::e
Computers
seen as
are
They encourage learning.
of progress.
catalysts, enabling desired change in educat.Lon to
occur.
The rapid and extensive proliferation of computers in
schools reinforces the notion that computers are symbols of
"modern" schools and that awareness of computers will confirm
This along with the
the fact that schools are up-to-date.
literacy
computer
basic
perspective
cultural that
is
a
fundamental requirement for participation in the society of
computer develops more generalized
and using
tomorrow,
a
intellectual abilities.
The objective of this study is to compare the reading
who
grade students
low-achieving
third
achievement
of
participated in IBM's Wricing-To-Read (WTR) program with low
achieving student who did not.
computer-based
WTR
is
a
Henry
to
by
designed Martin1
John
system
instructional
develop writing and reading skills of kindergarten and first-
The WTR program student selection was based
grade students.
on reading scores as measured by Iowa Test of Basic Skills
students
defined
students
achieving
as
are
Low
(ITBS)
.
3 or students receiving full-time
achieving at starine 1,
2,
And
Elementary
The
ESEA
classroom.
instruction
an
in
provides supplemental funds
Secondary Education Act
(ESEA)
for educational opportunities f= low income students.
The
WTR center and interrelated learning stations are contained
in the regular classroom and provide interaction, guidance,
and command of the computer for students to direct their own
The teacher is the instructional supervisor.
learning.
1 IBM Literature
ARE
^7--; ( ,^4F /
_
said that the teacher is the most
Fitzpatrick
(1991)
Computers challenge teachers to
important variable 3.n CAI.
learn a new technology and also to act as learner and teacher
Teachers are challenged to experiment as
at the same time.
determine how
best
computers
they
to
learn
and
use
to
While schools have made
integrate CAI into the curriculum.
progress in their efiort to train teachers in the use of
instructional technology, many teachers remain unfamiliar and
Apple
uncomfortable
technology.
computers and
with
the
(1992) noted research indicating that few teachers are given
substantial information or training before computer curricula
(1992) accuses schools of
Kearsey, et. al.
are implemented.
failing to provide adequate training--enough or the right
to properly learn a
kind--the time and hands-on practice
system is often overlooked or is too minimal.
Hawkridge (1990) noted that when computers are used in
to lcarn selected topics from the school's
schools
it is
curriculum, with the computer and educational software either
They are
complementing or temporarily replacing the teacher.
used to enrich the existing carricuiLtAra and improve the way in
by using computers as sophisticated
which it
is delivered,
traditional
which
ways
extend
of
can
educational
tools
new
offer
children
information
and
presenting
to
with
only
possible
techniques
through
opportunities
The addition of microcomputers in the school
computers.
helps young people explore new technologies through which
The computer permits
future ideas will be communicated.
putting students in decision
interaction almost instantly,
amounts
endless
of
making
positions,
of
in
cc,ntrol
information, and viEh tr9mendous power in cheir hands.
Recent S.urvey data showed most elementary students use
mainly occasionally and for purposes of lending
computers,
variety and enrichme_C, rather than as a central component of
Expectations persist for CAI
teacher instructional program
academic
student
improve
effective
to
be
in
helpi71g
to
Computer-based activities are motivational; the
performance.
clearest empirical research that exist about instructional
uses of computers is that students overwhelmingly enjoy most
computer learning activities.
opportunity
provide
education
Computer
can
to
the
address and enhance
schooling--
fundamental
goals
of
th -.
equality of opportunity
including basic skill development,
But Apple
and the realization of hurran potential.
(1992)
discussed other spcial implicat'.ons of computers in schools.
into
being turned
suggested
are
the
that
He
8choc,ls
"production plants" and tna..._ we must be very certain that the
The introduction of
new technology will benefit all of us.
wide
social
already
may
technology
increase
computer
Private schools and public schools in affluent
imbalances.
to computers and technology.
areas will have more access
Computers
Poorer schools will be priced out of the market.
further
generate
"naturally"
computer
will
literacy
and
more
label
may affixing
one
to
be
We
inequalities.
broadened
to
will
illiteracy"
be
students..."functional
include computers.
computers
and
availability
use
growing
in
of
The
education has prompted researchers to look for measurable
effects of computer-a.:;sited :earnirlg on testable outcomes.
Baird and Silvern (1992) att_emp-_ed to determine iE there were
effects associated with learning in one mode and testing in
A
another; or test validit, in assessing computer learning.
meta-analysis of 54 studies by Kulik, Kulik and Cohen (1980)
uncovered and effect size for computer-based instruction that
Thirty-seven of
ranged from -1 to almost +3 on achievement.
the 54 studies favored computer-based instruction while 17
The study did not examine
favored conventional instruction.
Many
targeted
learning.
assess
used
test
to
type
of
variables may interact, which makes definite conclusions on
Clark (1983) noted
effect of computer instruction difficult.
such
results,
conflicting
as
explanations
the
for
some
variance in teaching styles and applications of the computer,
types of supplementary matPrials used in computer learning,
and prior knowledge of the learner.
also determined that the post
Baird and Silvern (1992)
represent
an
may
learning
assessment
treatment
of
Most
uncontrolled variable in research on computer learning.
reported results of interactive CAI are based on pencil and
These studies assume the pencil and paper
paper assessments.
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presented
learning
assessments
indicators
are
of
valicl
Kirby
through a medium which does not use paper and pencil.
with
schooling,
pointed
traditional
its
out
thar
(1979)
emphasis on print material for both learning and assessment,
with
field independent,
biased
favor learners
in
of
is
Su:h students may test higher
reflective learning styles.
impulsive classmates.
Current
than their field-dependent,
characterized by high
interaction
levels
software
of
is
environment.
learning
The
learner
between
the
and
the
difference between a computer environment and the regular
computer
assessment
environment
of
suggest
that
school
This raises the
learning should be done on a
computer.
can
learning
computer augmented
be
question
whether
of
effectively measured using static print formats.
Robinson & Cooper (1990) studied students in an English
Half of the students were assigned to
composition class.
using the computer and half to using pen and paper to write
Analysis of the final essays revealed
course assignments.
that those subjects assigned to use computers wrote better
There was a
essays than those assLgned to work on paper.
Studens in the computer
significant: perfoxmcpca diFferenc.
than
section received higher scores on '-heir essays
(M=5.8)
Grades given
did students in non-computer sectitJn
(M=5.1).
using
Students
results.
showed
same
the
by teachers
computers were given grades of (M=7.8) and students who wrote
Other dliferences were
by hand were given grades of (M=6.9) .
contained
fewer
computers
written
on
Essays
noted.
essays
handwritten
did
than
punctuation
errors
(M=0.05)
contained more
Computer generated work
words
(M=0.31).
than handwril-ten work (M=297.4); average sentence
(M=364.5)
for the COmputer generated work to
(M=17.0)
length (M=18 9)
reater number of complex sentences
for the handwritten work;
for handwritten.
cor zomputer generated and (M=6.8)
(M=8.4
As measu,:-QJ by performance sccres, class grades, punctuation
numbr of wor46,
number
length and
sentence
of
errors,
complex Gentene_es, the students who worked on computers wrote
ey, et. al. 1990).
better
IR.obinb..)r, Stay(
was critical of research which reported
Becker
(1992)
score gains for huhdreus of students in two Chicago Public
in those schools are
The positive effect sizes
Schools.
7
based not on substantial year-to-year gains during CAI years
extremely low gai s during prior (comparison) years.
but on
students gained an average of about
At these two schools,
7/10 to 3/4 of a grade equivalent per year prior to their use
But in
of computers, a level typical of inner-city schools.
students gained only about 4/10
pre-computer years,
of
a
grade equivalent per ye-ir, a level lower than likely to exist
at any other regular public school in the country with normal
test administration and scoring conditions (Becker, 1992).
Arroyo (1992) studied the results of Extensive Computer
grade
seventh
students.
inner-city
instruction
on
(ECI)
Computers were situated in the "homeroom" and could be used
She cites a number of studies that
in all subject areas.
suggest there is potential for improvement or improvement in
The findings
achievement when CAI is used in the classroom.
from her research show a significant gain, as shown by the t
and
1992 of
(3.5)for
the
1991
for
scores
of
(0.307)
experimental over the control group.
conducted a study of WTR in two
Collis,
(1990)
al.
et.
They
through
British
Columbia Irom
schools
1987.
1985
randomly
non
comparing
the
encountered
diFficultiE
in
WTR classes with other classes and
selected sample of int;
commenting on the impact of WTR experience on achievement.
period before WTR was
six year
Data accumulated over a
Grade one students in the years
implemented was analyzed
prior to WTR were compared with students after a full year of
The data compared student achievement
implementation of WTR.
in the same school, with the same teachers before and after
The comparison of the two groups were not
the WTR program.
WTR
significantly different in terms of reading achievement.
appears to be associated with an improvement in some aspects
of writing for grade one children but does not appear to be
associated with any "signi-icant" improvement in reading when
It was suggested that
compared to "traditional" classrooms.
the WTR system from more than the
closer scrutiny of
a
criteria of achievement scores is needed
et.
(Collis,
al.
1990).
the WTR
multi-year evaluation of
Leahy
did
a
(1991)
a mid-sized suburban district.
program between schools
in
3
The study compared second grade students, who had received
WTR in first grade, schools implementing WTR with second
3_1.
grade students receiviLg "traditional" instruction in schools
The reading and language arts
not implementing the program.
section of the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) and
a Competency Based Writing Sample were the instruments of
Statistically significant differences
comparison.
the
at
0.05 level were found on all subtests between the WTR and
Leahy also noted statistically significant
NWTR students.
gender differences between WTR and NWTR scores on the CTBS.
average word count
Competency Based Writing
for
The
the
Sample was not statistically significant when the WTR and
However, the average number of
NWTR students were compared.
words produced by second graders did show a statistically
significant difference when related to the sex of the student
The average word count by WTR males
in WTR and NWTR groups.
was 61.46 words and NWTR males had a mean of 49.72 words,
while WTR females produced 70.01 words on an average compared
Leahy thought
to 64.9 words for NWTR females (Leahy, 1991) .
that the use of
represented a
a commercial program
(WTR)
confounding variable by its early emphasis on structure.
The
computer instruction
teacher's role
irt int eg rat i nq
effectively with the readino progrm was seen as a weakness.
i_tegration is structured into the
In the WTR program
program and not left up to the teacher who is trained to
observe the readiness for interaction and progression.
The
teacher is the most important variable in reading instruction
(Leahy, 1991).
The jury is still out on the benefits derived from CAI;
it has not lived up to expectations, but maybe expectations
positive
point
Indicat9rs,
though,
to
too
were
high.
More and more research
benefits for students and teachers.
in achievement and many more
shows some measurable gains
CAI can
positive i_nflue- 1:es on affective student behaviors.
..ncrease stAdent interest and motivation to learn;
serve to
enrichment and variety to the curriculum
offer enjoyment,
CAI can
whilE it introduces students to a "new" technology.
help to increase teacher ecfectiveness by being an available,
on-going classroom lesource; and providing more time for the
For the
encourage and guide students.
teacher to assist,
CAI can offer renewed enthusiasm
school and the classroom,
for learning, curriculum reform, individualized instruction,
and computer literacy.
In conclusion, Ely (1993) put it best when he concluded
that where deliberate efforts have been made by teachers or
schools, one would have to say, the teachers and the learners
They have gained new skills, new
will never be the same.
increased
how and
motivation,
perceptions
learn;
of
to
Justification
renewed enthusiasm for teaching and learning.
for computer learning is often sought in research findings
acquisition of
their value
knowledge
as
that
"prove"
in
Perhaps there
other
are
traditional
tested
means.
by
measures of success that have not been tested or are beyond
willingness to
testing such as attitudes toward learning,
pursue problems until they are solved, and changing of the
teacher from a presenter of information to a facilitator of
Perhaps the "right" research questions have not
learning.
been raised (Ely, 1993).
ocedures
Population;
The population for this study will include 60 third grade
Laura S.
students at the Laura S. Ward Elementary School.
Ward School is located in a predominantly low socioeconomic
in the Garfield Park
neighborhood on Chicago's west side,
The school's population is defined by the State
community.
population
The schools'
is
low
income.
being
93%
as
minority
and
African-American
100%
comprised
99.1%
of
students.
From the sixty students who were in third grade in the 1992-
Fifteen who had
thirty were selected.
school year,
1993
received WTR computer-assisted instruction and fifteen who
Only those students whose pretest ITBS scores had
had not.
2 or 3 were selected.
stanine 1,
Each
spring
the
Tests
Basic
Skills
of
[owa
(ITBS)
is
administered to each student in Chicago's Public Elementary
Two samples were identified from school records
Schools.
from those students who had participated in the WTR program
and thpse who had not.
The pretest-posttest group design
utilited
will
The
reading
be
scores
ITBS
the
of
administered in the Spring 1992 will be used as pretest and
reading scores of ITBS administered in Spring 1993 will be
used as posttest.
1 0