ERIC ED358608: Educational Reform and Special Education: Foundations for a National Research Agenda Focused upon Secondary Education.

29 Pages·1993·0.46 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 358 608
EC 302 170
AUTHOR
Johnson, John R.; Rusch, Frank R.
TITLE
Educational Reform and Special Education: Foundations
for a National Research Agenda Focused upon Secondary
Education.
PUB DATE
93
NOTE
29p.; In: Kohler, Paula A., and others. Transition
from School to Adult Life: Foundations, Best
Practices, and Research Directions; see EC 302
169.
PUB TYPE
Information Analyses (070) Viewpoints
(Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.)
(120)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*Disabilities; *Educational Change; Educational
Needs; Educational Objectives; Elementary School
Students; Elementary Secondary Education; Futures (of
Society); Graduation Requirements; *Mainstreaming;
Program Effectiveness; *Regular and Special Education
Relationship; *Research Needs; School Effectiveness;
Secondary School Students; *Special Education
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the literature on educational
reform, especially in relation to special education and students with
disabilities. It reviews 10 reports published since 1983 that
identified issues in educational reform. Observations include:
regular education reformers have not adequately addressed the issues
of students with disabilities; special educators have not addressed
the failure of public schools to meet the needs of nondisabled
students; efficacy studies of special education indicate limited or
negative effects of special education; both regular and special
educators are concerned with low expectations and devaluation of
specific groups; both regular and special educators are concerned
with transition from school to adulthood; issues of access for
students with disabilities have receded and issues of quality and
effectiveness have come to the forefront; and issues of school
restructuring are of concern to both regular and special educators.
The report's concluding recommendation calls for a cooperatively
focused research agenda that is predicated upon the complete
elimination of any distinction between regular and special education.
Other recommendations include changing graduation criteria to
accommodate the intellectual diversity of students and applying best
special educational practices to the major problems of regular
education. (Contains 56 references.) (DB)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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Educational Reform and Special Education
U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Once of Educational Research and improvement
77
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
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Chapter 4
Educational Reform and Special Education:
Foundations for a National Research Agenda
Focused Upon Secondary Education
John R. Johnson
and
Frank R. Rusch
RUNNING HEAD: Educational Reform and Special Education
2
Educational Reform and Special Education
.
78
4.
Abstract
In this paper we review recent literature addressing education reform. In particular, we
describe the context, attitudes, and perspectives of authors in relation to students with
disabilities. Notably, we suggest several observations and implications related to the
education of young people with disabilities. Finally, we recommend a cooperatively focused
agenda that is predicated upon the complete elimination of any distinction between regular
and special education.
Educational Reform and Special Education
79
Educational Reform and Special Education: Foundations for a
National Research Agenda Focused Upon Secondary Education
Passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L.
101-476) marked a new era of accountability in secondary education and transition-related
services. The intent of this mandate is to ensure that students with disabilities receive a
coordinated education that results in desired post-school outcomes, including the
likelihood of post-secondary education and training, probable employment, and living
independently. The promise for the future is the emergence of an educational system that
will result in benefits for all students with disabilities after leaving school.
Unfortunately, this hallmark legislation arrives at a time when American education is
failing to achieve
in the throes of a severe crisis. There is ample evidence that schools are
desired and expected outcomes for all students regardless of ability (e.g., Boyer, 1983;
Education Commission of the States, 1983; Good lad, 1984; Kozol, 1991; National Assessment
1983;
of Educational Progress, 1990; National Commission on Excellence in Education,
raised
Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985; Sizer, 1992; Toch, 1991). Serious questions have been
dilemma for
about the effectiveness of mandatory education. These questions pose a serious
of
educators working for the full inclusion of students with disabilities into the mainstream
American public education.
formulators
In our opinion, the success of IDEA being implemented as envisioned by its
review
hinges upon the health of all elements of public school education. In this paper, we
of concern
the literature on education reform in order to: (a) summarize the major issues
students with
addressed by the literature, (b) determine the extent to which issues related to
of
disabilities have been addressed, (c) describe the context, attitudes, and perspectives
general observations
students with disabilities presented in the literature, (d) describe some
and (e) recommend
and implications related to the education of persons with disabilities,
community, and the
that education reformists, policy makers, researchers, the education
Educational Reform and Special Education
80
general public develop a cooperatively-focused agenda.
This final recommendation is
predicated upon the complete elimination of
any distinction between regular and special
education.
Education Reform
Educ'ation in general and schools in particular have
come under close scrutiny and
intense criticism over the past 10
years. This criticism, however, is not unique to the 1980's;
education has been a popular target of reform for
over four decades. Arthur Bestor's (1953)
book entitled, Educational Wastelands,
was an early example calling for the reform of
secondary education and a harbinger of events
to come. Since then, and particularly during
the 1980s, the number of reports calling for education reform
increased dramatically. Most
recently, Toch (1991) traced the growth and status of the
excellence in education movement
during the 1980s. He cited more than 17 different
reports focusing upon education reform.
Interestingly, few national reports have focused in
any significant way upon educational
reform that addresses children who do not
go on to college. Further, most existing reports
ignored young people at risk, young people with disabilities,
and young people who wish to
be taught how to obtain a meaningful job and live in
our society with the primary goal of
being a satisfied and contributing member. We reviewed
ten reports published since 1983 to
identify issues comprising the current focus and
national agenda for education reform. In
particular, these reports were selected
on the basis of their wide publicity and impact on
education reform efforts.
A Nation at Risk (NCEE, 1983)
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform
was released by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE, 1983). Thirteen
performance and
achievement indicators were identified by the National Commission
as being below
national expectations. Of these 13 indicators, 10
were drawn from the results of standardized
tests. In addition to identifying indicators of problems associated with
student performance
and achievement, the National Commission also presented findings
related to curricular
Educational Reform and Special Education
81
content, instructional time, and teaching (e.g., preparation, qualifications, availability).
Recommendations were presented in these and other areas of concern (e.g., leadership and
fiscal support). Two statements acknowledged concern for students with disabilities. The
first was the acknowledgment of a teacher shortage for "handicapped students." A second
recommendation called for extending the school year to ensure time for programs for
students with special needs.
Making the Grade (TCF, 1983)
Making the Grade was released by the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Federal
Elementary and Secondary Education Policy (TCF, 1983). The first section of this report
included findings of the task force. The remainder of the report included a background
paper written by Paul E. Peterson for the Twentieth Century Rind that provided the basis
for the organization of the task force. This latter section addressed the federal role in
education over the past few decades with a specific focus on how "...the federal government
[should] assist in the maintenance and operation of the nation's elementary and secondary
schools" (p. 34).
Ten areas of concern were discussed, including: (a) excessive burdens on schools and
teachers; (b) federal presence and involvement in education; (c) federal commitment to
education; (d) the quality of congressional and executive leadership; (e) the quality of
teachers; (f) literacy in the English language; (g) competency and skill in science and
mathematics; (h) improvement and expansion of educational research; (i) opportunities for
parents to choose schools; and, (j) leadership of local and state governments in education.
In his background paper included in the report, Peterson (1983) wrote that "While areas
of deficiency can be discerned, there is little evidence for concluding that the American
system of education is in serious trouble, much less that it has failed" (p. 35). Of interest was
the focus of the paper on the problems associated with pull-out programs, bilingual
education, and the Education of All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142). Peterson (1983)
Educational Reform and Special Education
82
concluded with recommendations that established the basis for the organization of the task
force by the Twentieth Century Fund.
Several observations about the Twentieth Century Fund's report
are noteworthy,
particularly in contrast with other reports released during the early 1980s. This
report
viewed efforts to educate students with disabilities in a favorable light by stating,
"Accordingly, the Task Force supports continuing federal efforts to provide special
educational programs for the poor and for the handicapped" (p. 15). However, several
concerns also were noted in the background paper by Peterson (1983). In particular,
escalating costs, difficulties associated with identification and classification of students with
disabilities, and many of the procedural requirements of P.L. 94-142
were mentioned.
Peterson (1983) also addressed concerns with the efficacy of Title I pull-out
programs
although the involvement of students with disabilities was not specifically discussed.
High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America (Boyer, 1983)
Boyer (1983) provided supporting evidence of declines in student performance and
achievement. Boyer (1983) also provided a brief review of the history of American schools
including an analysis of the goals of American public education and
an examination of
course requirements and curricular content. Recommendations were proposed for the
composition of a core curriculum with a clear emphasis on academic subjects. One
core
proposal was "The meaning of vocation," which involved
an academic approach to the
understanding of the culture, significance, and value of work.
Interestingly, Boyer (1983) included a chapter entitled "Transition to Work and
Learning" implying that transition involves "moving from high school to college
or to
work" (p. 118). Boyer (1983) raised several concerns relevant to the transition of students
from high school to work. For example, he noted, "Most high schools have little
or no
information about what their vocational-education graduates are doing" (p. 121). He argued
that studies have shown that job prospects for graduates of vocational programs
are no
better than those for students in nonspecialized programs. Boyer (1983) also addressed the
Educational Reform and Special Education
83
enrolled in vocational
issue of tracking by citing evidence that many students were
unable to be successful with academic subjects.
programs due to the belief that they were
would be given the
Boyer (1983) proposed a "Transition School" in which students
clusters" during their last two
opportunity to pursue more specialized training or "elective
years of schooling.
of the gifted and
Under the rubric of "special students," Boyer (1983) addressed concerns
of students who drop
high-risk student. High-risk students were described solely in terms
high schools, colleges and
out of school. Boyer (1983) recommended linkages among
"needy" students. "Needy
businesses. Once again, he addressed the needs of gifted and
difficulty with English as a
students" were described in terms of individuals experiencing
related to school management and
second language. Finally, Boyer (1984) addressed issues
and fiscal support for
leadership and then devoted a chapter to an analysis of the public
the need for additional resources
public education. Examples were provided that illustrated
buildings and equipment. The final chapter
to repair and upgrade deteriorating school
general education.
proposed recommendations for improving the quality of
evidence for the concerns
Clearly, this text made a significant contribution to providing
that this text made not a
of early educational reformists. However, it is important to note
students with disabilities in American
single reference to programs, issues, or concerns of
public schools.
Horace's Compromise (Sizer, 1992)
in 1984. This report
Horace's Compromise (Sizer, 1992) was originally published
the perspective of Horace, a
provided an overview of the conditions of schools from
(1992) believed represented many veteran,
composite and fictitious character, who Sizer
ethnographic perspective that adopted an
public school teachers. Sizer (1992) provided an
of schools. In essence, Sizer (1992)
"insider's" or "roaming the hall" view of the conditions
in great detail the ambience,
echoed many of the findings of Boyer (1983) while articulating
school. However, Sizer (1992) took
human qualities, and dilemmas of the typical American
8
Educational Reform and Special Education
84
issue with some of the recommendations for reform proposed
by Boyer (1983) and other
reports. For example, Sizer (1992) considered the legislation of
a mandatory common core of
subjects to be "...an abuse of state power,
an excessive reach of political authority" (p. 88). He
recommended the cessation of compulsory schooling and
the institution of voluntary
schooling upon the attainment of minimum educational
competencies. However, he also
suggested that there was a need for
a more cohesive and a well articulated curriculum. Sizer
(1992) recommended that the curriculum become
more focused on fewer subjects with an
emphasis on core academic subjects. He cited the Paideia
Proposal (Adler, 1982) as an
example.
Only one reference was made by Sizer (1992)
to students with disabilities. A student with
a severe hearing impairment was quoted to demonstrate the educational
motivations of a
student with a disability.
A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future (Good lad, 1984)
A Place Called School (Good lad, 1984)
was the second in the series of scholarly
examinations of public education during the early 1980s. The first
three sentences of this
text echoed the sentiments of A Nation at Risk (NCEE, 1983) and High
School: A Report on
Secondary Education in America (Boyer, 1983). Good lad
(1984) stated, "American schools
are in trouble. In fact, the problems of schooling are of such crippling proportions
that many
schools may not survive. It is possible that
our entire public education system is nearing
collapse" (p. 1). Good lad (1984) described the findings of
a study of a sample of schools he
believed typified public schools around the country. He concluded
that reform efforts must
focus on schools as the unit of improvement and that
an attitude of caring for schools and
education must emerge. Good lad (1984) examined these themes
and focused primarily
upon the same general areas of concern addressed by Boyer (1984).
The only reference to concerns specific to students with disabilities
made by Good lad
(1984) was the degree to which special education teachers felt
adequately prepared to teach or
address student needs. Good lad (1984) noted that
a greater number of special education
Educational Reform and Special Education
85
adequately prepared compared
teachers who worked with secondary-level students felt less
to the number working with elementary students.
Educational Marketplace
The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the
(Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985)
of high schools as educational
Powell, Farrar, and Cohen (1985) presented a perspective
High School: Winners and
"shopping malls." Their book entitled The Shopping Mall
the education of individuals
Losers in the Educational Marketplace, included references to
metaphor of the "shopping mall high
with disabilities. The first chapter expounded on the
malls and high schools.
school" by describing characteristics shared by both shopping
options, services mandated by
References to students with disabilities addressed curricular
and remedial education. Also
law, and the high proportion of students in special education
special education
addressed were concerns related to the time spent by counselors on
disabilities. It also was
students at the expense of time spent on those students without
schools and regular classes.
noted that students with disabilities were attending regular
according to the authors, serve
Powell et al. (1985) referred to "specialty shops" which,
preferred customers" (p. 119). They
students who "...are regarded by the school as special, as
and resources is lavished on
noted that "A disproportionate fraction of adult time, energy,
"special-needs shop", which
them" (p. 119). One type of specialty shop focused upon the
addressed the passage of P.L. 94-142,
served primarily students with disabilities. This section
education teachers,
the IEP, collaboration between special education and general
translators), the caring and
mainstreaming, support services (e.g., sign language
between challenging work, high
commitment of special educators, and the best balance
(1985) commented that, "...students
expectations, and probability for success. Powell et al.
and resources. They are
classified under P.L. 94-142 have access to a wider range of programs
consistently served than other students and thus form a
more comprehensively and
addressed the admissions
specialty shop" (p. 126). Another section in the same chapter
and admission of students into
criteria for determining "specialness" that allow selection