ERIC ED358213: Academic Challenge for the Children of Poverty. Study of Academic Instruction for Disadvantaged Students. Volume 1: Findings and Conclusions.

444 Pages·1993·5.9 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 358 213
UD 029 276
AUTHOR
Knapp, Michael S.; And Others
TITLE
Academic Challenge for the Children of Poverty. Study
of Academic Instruction for Disadvantaged Students.
Volume 1: Findings and Conclusions.
INSTITUTION
Policy Studies Associates, Inc., Washington, DC.; SRI
International, Menlo Park, Calif.
SPONS AGENCY
Office of Policy and Planning (ED), Washington,
DC.
REPORT NO
ED/OPP-93-33
PUB DATE
93
CONTRACT
LC88054001
NOTE
448p.; For the summary report, see ED 353 355.
PUB TYPE
Reports
Descriptive (141)
Reports
Evaluative /Feasibility (142)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC18 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*Academic Achievement; *Children; *Disadvantaged
Youth; Economically Disadvantaged; Educational
Change; Educationally Disadvantaged; Elementary
Education; *Elementary School Students; High Risk
Students; Mathematics Instruction; Nontraditional
Education; Policy Formation; *Poverty; Reading
Instruction; *Teaching Methods; Writing
Instruction
IDENTIFIERS
Academic Challenge for Excellence
ABSTRACT
The Study of Academic Instruction for Disadvantaged
Students explored the nature and effects of alternatives to
conventional practices in mathematics, reading, and writing
instruction in schools that serve high concentrations of children
from low-income backgrounds. This report presents what was learned by
describing and analyzing instructional practices in approximately 140
first- through sixth-grade classrooms in 15 high-performing
elementary schools across 6 districts in 3 states. Findings dispel
the myth that academically challenging work should be postponed until
children of poverty have mastered all relevant basic skills. The
alternative practices studiec helped children connect their academic
learning with the world outside school. More often than not, teachers
combined conventional modes of instruction with alternative
practices. The challenge for teachers is not to discard what they
have been doing, but t^ expand their repertoires to teach a more
challenging curriculum. Local and state policymakers can play
a key
role by doing whatever is necessary to support educational goals. The
Federal. Government can exercise leadership, particularly in promoting
professional development. The overall conclusion is that instruction
that emphasizes meaning and understanding has proved its worth.
Findings are summarized in 72 tables,
1 exhibit, and 4 figures.
(SLD)
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*
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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4
Study of Academic Instruction for Disadvantaged Students
,
ACADEMIC CHALLENGE FOR THE CHILDREN
OF POVERTY
Volume 1: Findings and Conclusions
1993
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Prepared for the U.S. Department
of Education under contract by:
SRI International
Menlo Park, CA
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Contract No. LC88054001
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J.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OFFICE OF POLICY AND PLANNING
Study of Academic Instruction for Disadvantaged Students
ACADEMIC CHALLENGE FOR THE CHILDREN
OF POVERTY
Volume 1: Findings and Conclusions
1993
Prepared by:
Michael S. Knapp
Nancy E. Adelman
Cami!le Marder
Heather McCollum
Margaret C. Needels
Patrick M. Shields
Brenda J. Turnbull
Andrew A. Zucker
The conduct of this study and the preparation of this report were
sponsored by the U.S. Departn ent of Education, Office of Policy
and Planning, Planning and Evaluation Service, under Contract
No. LC88054001 (Project Officer: Adriana de Kanter). Any
opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed
in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the U.S. Department of Education.
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION
xv
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1
Alternatives to Conventional Practice
2
Outcomes of Instruction That Emphasizes Meaning and
Understanding
11
The Environment for Academic Instruction in Schools,
Districts, and States
17
What the Study's Results Mean
21
STUDY FOCUS AND APPROACH
29
I
Teaching for Meaning:
Conventional Wisdom and Alternative
Approaches
30
Focus of Investigation and Study Questions
33
Strategy of Investigation and Key Assumptions
36
Framing the Investigation
38
Organization of This Report
40
SCHOOLS, DISTRICTS, AND CLASSROOMS SERVING THE CHILDREN
II
OF POVERTY
43
The Sample and How It Was Chosen
43
The Six Districts
46
The Schools
49
Classrooms
52
MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
PART ONE:
59
MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION IN SAMPLE CLASSROOMS
III
61
.
.
What Is Taught in Mathematics Across the Year
64
Who Teaches Mathematics
69
Organization and Format of Mathematics Instruction
72
Summary
80
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
IV
IN MATHEMATICS
81
Overarching Strategies for Maximizing Mathematical
Understanding and Problem-Solving Proficiency
81
Four Types of Mathematics Classrooms
89
How the Types of Mathematics Classrooms Are Distributed
Among Students, Teachers, and School Settings
103
i
CONTENTS (Continued)
WHAT CHILDREN LEARN FROM DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATHEMATICS
V
INSTRUCTION
111
Outcomes of Mathematics Instruction
112
Effects on Mathematical Understanding and Problem-Solving
Proficiency
116
Effects on Students' Grasp of Basic Computational Skills
122
.
. .
Differential Effects on Low- and High-Achieving Students
125
. .
.
Other Factors That Might Influence Mathematics Outcomes
127
.
. .
Interpreting the Results of Mathematics Outcomes Analysis
131
.
.
READING INSTRUCTION
PART TWO:
133
READING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION IN GRADES ONE THROUGH SIX
135
VI
.
.
What Is Taught in Reading Across the Year
136
Who Teaches Reading/Language Arts
147
Organization and Format of Reading Instruction
152
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
VII
IN READING
159
Strategies That Attempt to Maximize Understanding
159
A Typology of Reading Classrooms
183
How the Types of Reading Classrooms Are Distributed Among
Students, Teachers, and School Settings
187
WHAT CHILDREN LEARN FROM DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO READING
VIII
195
INSTRUCTION
Outcomes of Reading Instruction
196
Effects on Reading Comprehension
200
Effe is on Students' Grasp of Basic Skills
206
Differential Effects on High- and Low-Achieving Students
208
. . .
Other Factors That Might Influence Reading Outcomes
211
Interpreting the Results of Reading Outcomes Analysis
214
WRITING INSTRUCTION
217
PART THREE:
WRITING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION IN GRADES ONE THROUGH SIX
219
IX
. .
What Is Taught in Writing Across the Year
222
Who Teaches Writing
227
228
The Organization and Format of Writing Instruction
ii
CONTENTS (Continued)
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TC WRITING INSTRUCTION
233
X
Strategies Intended to Maximize Meaningful Written
Communication
233
Types of Writing Classrooms
242
How Types of Writing Classrooms Are Distributed Among
Students, Teachers, and School Settings
262
WHAT CHILDREN LEARN FROM DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO WRITING
XI
INSTRUCTION
267
Outcomes of Writing Instruction
268
.s on Students' Competence at Written Composition
Eff.
272
Effects on Students' Grasp of Language Mechanics
275
Differential Effects on High- and Low-Achieving Students
277
.
. .
Other Factors That Might Influence Writing Outcomes
279
Interpreting the Results of the Writing Outcomes Analysis
282
. .
CROSS-CUTTING CONSIDERATIONS
PART FOUR:
285
MANAGING ACADEMIC LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
287
XII
The Roots of the Problem in Classrooms Serving the Children
of Poverty
288
Four Types of Academic Learning Environments
290
Characteristics of Students, Teachers, and School Settings
Ass(,ciated with the Four Types of Learning Environments
299
.
. .
Dimensions of Classroom Organization and Management Strategy
302
. .
Managing the Learning Environment Across the School Day
320
.
. . .
MAKING ACADEMIC INSTRUCTION WORK FOR CHILDREN FROM DIFFERENT
XIII
BACKGROUNDS
329
How Teachers Respond to Differences in Student Background
331
. .
Teachers' Responses in Relation to Instruction and Student
340
Engagement
Implications for Teaching and Learning
343
SUPPLEMENTING INSTRUCTION IN THE REGULAR PROGRAM
349
XIV
Sources of Supplemental Instructional Support
349
Instructional Models Found in Supplemental Programs
353
Contributions and Limitations of Supplemental Programs
366
CONTENTS (Continued)
PART FIVE:
STUDENTS, TEACHERS, AND SCHOOL SETTINGS AS INFLUENCES
ON ACADEMIC INSTRUCTION
379
XV
STUDENT AND TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS THAT SHAPE ACADEMIC
INSTRUCTION
381
The Nature of the Student Population
381
Teachers' Preparation, Knowledge, and Beliefs
385
THE SCHOOL, DISTRICT, AND STATE ENVIRONMENT FOR ACADEMIC
XVI
INSTRUCTION
401
The School as an Environment for Academic Instruction
401
District and State Policy Environment
409
Summary:
Balancing Support, Autonomy, and Pressure for
Change
418
References
423
Appendix:
Methodological Notes
427
iv
TABLES
Principal Study Questions
35
1.
Performance Level of Sample Schools at the Beginning of the
2.
Study (Year 1)
45
Characteristics of Sample Classrooms (Year 1)
47
3.
Seven Transitions in Mathematics Education
62
4.
5a. What Is Taught in Mathematics Across the Year, By Grade
(Year 1)
66
5b. What Is Taught in Mathematics Across the Year, By Grade
(Year 2)
67
6a. Staff Who Teach Mathematics in Sample Classrooms, By Grade
(Year 1)
70
6b. Staff Who Teach Mathematics in Sample Classrooms, By Grade
(Year 2)
71
7a. Organization of Mathematics Instruction and Associated Learning
Activities, By Grade (Year 1)
74
7b. Organization of Mathematics Instruction and Associated Learning
Activities, By Grade (Year 2)
75
8a. Materials and Technology Used in Mathematics Instruction,
By Grade (Year 1)
78
8b. Materials and Technology Used in Mathematics Instruction,
By Grade (Year 2)
79
9a. Overarching Strategies for Maximizing Mathematical Understanding
and Problem-Solving Proficiency, By Grade (Year 1)
88
9b. Overarching Strategies for Maximizing Mathematical Understanding
and Problem-Solving Proficiency, By Grade (Year 2)
88
Typology of Mathematics Classrooms in the Sample
90
10.
lla. Patterns of Mathematics Instruction, By Classroom Type
(Year 1)
92
11b. Patterns of Mathematics Instruction, By Classroom Type
(Year 2)
93
v
TABLES (Continued)
Student and Teacher Characteristics, By Type of Mathematics
12.
Classroom (Year 2)
105
Patterns of Mathematics Instruction By District (Both Years)
106
13.
.
Patterns of Mathematics Instruction in Two Schools Within
14.
District 1
109
(Year 2)
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
15.
Mathematical Understanding Over the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
117
.
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
16.
Mathematical Problem-Solving Proficiency Over the Short Term
118
(Fall to Spring)
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
17.
Mathematical Understanding Over the Longer Term (Fall to Fall,
Spring to Spring)
121
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
18.
Arithmetic Computational Skills Over the Short Term (Fall
124
to Spring)
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
19.
Mathematical Understanding, for High- and Low-Performing
Students, Over the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
126
Association Between Approach to Mathematics Instruction and
20.
Mathematical Understanding, Controlling for Other Instructional
and Teacher Variables, Over the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
129
.
. .
21a. What Is Taught in Reading Across the School Year, By Grade
138
(Year 1)
21b. What Is Taught in Reading Across the School Year, By Grade
141
(Year 2)
22a. Who Teaches Reading/Language Arts in tne Regular Classroom,
148
By Grade (Year 1)
22b. Who Teaches Reading/Language Arts in the Regular Classroom,
149
By Grade (Year 2)
23a. Organization of Reading Instruction, By Grade (Year 1)
154
23b. Organization of Reading Instruction, By Grade (Year 2)
155
24a. Strategies Aimed at Maximizing Understanding, By Grade (Year 1)
162
.
vi
TABLES (Continued)
24b. Strategies Aimed at Maximizing Understanding, By Grade (Year 2)
163
.
Profile of Different
Maximizing Opportunity to Read:
25.
Groups of Classrooms (Year 1)
167
Integrating Reading with Writing and Other Subjects:
26.
A Profile of Different Groups of Classrooms (Year 1)
173
Profiles
Explicit Teaching of Comprehension Strategies:
27.
of Different Groups of Classrooms (Year 1)
175
Providing Opportunities to Discuss Reading and Extend
28.
Profiles of Different Classroom Groups (Year 1)
179
Knowledge:
.
.
Grade-Level Distribution of Reading Classrooms By
29.
Emphasis on Alternative Instructional Strategies
185
Selected Instructional Characteristics of Three Types of
30.
Reading Classrooms
186
Background Characteristics of Students Enrolled in Three
31.
Types of Reading Classrooms
188
Background Characteristics of Teachers in Three Types
32.
of Reading Classrooms
190
Patterns of Reading Instruction By District
191
33.
How Types of Reading Classrooms Were Distributed Across
34.
the Schools in One District
193
Association Between Approach to Reading Instruction and
35.
Reading Comprehension, Over the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
202
. . .
Association Between Approach to Reading Instruction and
36.
Reading Comprehension, for Lower and Upper Elementary Children,
Over the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
203
Association Between Approach to Reading Instruction and
37.
Reading Comprehension, Over the Longer Term (Fall to Fall,
205
Spring to Spring)
Association Between Approach to Reading Instruction and
38.
Reading Mechanics Skills, for Lower Elementary Students, Over
207
the Short Term (Fall to Spring)
vii