ERIC ED356524: School-Based Management: Strategies for Success.

13 Pages·1993·0.4 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
EA 024 711
ED 356 524
Wohlstetter, Priscilla; Mohrman, Susan Albers
AUTHOR
School-Based Management: Strategies for Success.
TITLE
Consortium for Policy Research in Education, New
INSTITUTION
Brunswick, NJ.
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),
SPONS AGENCY
Washington, DC.
REPORT NO
CPRE-FB-02-1/93
PUB DATE
93
CONTRACT R117G1007; RR91172002
NOTE
13p.
AVAILABLE FROM Consortium for Policy Research in Education, Eagleton
Institute of Politics, Rutgers University, 90 Clifton
Avenue, New Brunswick, NJ 089001-1568.
PUB TYPE
Viewpoints (Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.)
Descriptive (141)
Reports
(120)
EDRS PRICE
MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
*Decentralization; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Organizational Change; *School Based Management;
School District Autonomy; School Restructuring; State
School District Relationship
ABSTRACT
School-based management (SBM) offers a mechanism to
promote school improvement through decentralization. Decentralization
can occur only gradually and cannot simply be implemented. The power
to make decisions influencing organizational policies must shift to
school-based councils comprised of administrators, teachers, parents,
community members, and students. The control and use of knowledge,
through expansion of job skills, teamwork skills, and organizational
skills, should be decentralized. Information should be diffused
through systematic strategies for sharing information. Decentralizing
reward schemes is critical to motivate individuals to use their
enhanced resources of power, knowledge, and information to further
reforms. The transition to SBM entails major changes in educational
organizations that can threaten participants unless accompanied by a
clearly articulated vision, the development of new skills and
capabilities in council members, and the provision of adequate time
and financial resources. States and school districts must offer
encouragement and provide support for a successful transition.
(TEJ)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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REPORTING ON ISSUES AND. RESEARCH IN EDUCATION. FINANCE AND POLICY
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Once of Educanona! Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
iTms
document has been reproduced as
c4School-Based Management:
receced from tne person or organaation
ongmahng
Minor changes td ,e oeen made to improve
Strategies for Success
reproducPon (Wanly
Pcnts of crew or oprnons slater:1.n th.S POCu
anent do rot necessarily represent Ott.c.al
OERI pos.pon or policy
Research on the private sector also points out that
School leaders across the nation are exploring ways
to better educate students and improve school
control over four resources needs to be decentralized
throughout the organization in order to maximize
performance. School-based management (SBM)
performance improvement:
offers a way to promote improvement by decentral-
izing control from central district offices to individual
power to make decisions that influence organiza-
school sites. It attempts to give school constituents
administrators, teachers, parents and other
tional practices, policies and directions;
community membersmore control over what
knowledge that enables employees to understand
happens in schools.
and contribute to organizational performance
including technical knowledge to do the job or
Endorsed by many organizations, including the
provide the service, interpersonal skills, and
National Governors' Association, SBM is being tried
managerial knowledge and expertise;
in districts of varied size and wealth. But so far, we
have only a small bit of knowledge about how to
information about the performance of the organi-
make SBM work.
zation, including revenues, expenditures, unit
performance, and strategic information on the
Decentralized management has a longer history in the
broader policy and economic environment; and
private sector, however. For several decades, organi-
zations have been implementing "high-involvement
rewards that are based on the performance of the
management," a practice that like SBM decreases
organization and the contributions of individuals.
centralized control to encourage self-management by
employees.' Studies of decentralization in the private
This issue of CPRE Finance Briefs offers a new
sector suggest that high-involvement management is
most appropriate in organizations where the work
definition of school-based management and describes
(like teaching in schools) is complex; is best done
is assistant professor of politics and
Priscilla Wohlstetter
collegially or in teams; involves uncertainty in its
policy in the School of Education at the University of South-
day-to-day tasks; and exists in a rapidly changing
ern California where she is directing the School-Based
environment.
of
Finance
the
Project for Center
the
Management
Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Susan Albers
Mohrman is deputy director of the School-Based Manage-
'For a complete discussion of the concept of high involvement
ment Project and senior research scientist with the Center for
management see, The Ultimate Advantage (San Francisco: Jossey-
Effective Organizations, in the School of Business at the
Bass, 1992) and High Involvement Management (San Francisco:
University of Southern California.
Jossey-Bass, 1986), both by E. E. Lawler.
FB-02-1/93
. CONSORTIUM FOR POLICY RESEARCH iN EDUCATION
PRE
Rutgers, The State 11.:.' ersity of New Jersey
Harvard University
University of Southern California
Stanford University
Michigan State University
University of Wisconsin-Madison
INN
INArpT,
r"'" ABLE
strategies for decentralizing
management to improve the design
New Book Will Focus on School-Based
of SEM plans. The design
Management
sttategies focus on the four
components of control: power,
This brief is based on the following papers prepared for a study
knowledge, information, and
being conducted by the Finance Center of CPRE. The papers
rewards.
will be published in a book tentatively titled Designing High
Performance Schools: Strategies for School-Based Management
The brief draws from a national
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, forthcoming).
study of school-based management
being conducted by Priscilla
Wohlstetter and Susan Albers
Johnson, S. M. & K. C. Boles. "School-Based Management and
Mohrman for the Finance Center
Teachers: Strategies for Reform"
of the Consortium for Policy
Marsh, D. D. & I. Straus. "The Relationship of Site-Based
Research in Education (CPRE) and
Management, The Local Change Process and School
is based on a series of
Transformation: A Review of the Literature"
commissioned papers (see
Mohrman, S. A. "High Involvement Management: An Overview
sidebar). Researchers are studying
of Practice in the Private Sector"
public schools, private schools and
Mohrman, S. A. "Large-Scale Organizational Change Processes:
private companies, that have
The Transition to High Involvement Management"
decentralized in order to identify
strategies that can improve the
Ogawa, R. T. "School-Based Management: Efforts to Distribute
implementation of school-based
Power, Information, Rewards and Knowledge"
management and enhance school
Powell, A. G. "Site Autonomy and Independent Schools:
productivity.
Sustaining Adult Community"
Wohlstetter, P. & R. Smyer. "Decentralization Strategies: A
Research on the private sector
Review of the Effective Schools Literature"
shows large-scale change, such as
decentralization, cannot be simply
installed. Rather it unfolds over
time through a gradual learning
shifted most often from the
(rewards). Furthermore, when
is
process. Therefore, the transition
SBM programs are analyzed, the
central administration to a council
to SBM is
best approached by
general conclusion is that the
at the school site. Councils may be
establishing structures and pro-
composed of administrators,
extent of decision-making respon-
cesses that enable groups of people
teachers, parents, community
sibility transferred to site teachers
to discuss new directions,try nevi
members and sometimes students.
and administrators is limited.
approaches, and learn from them.
In this way, SBM empowers
The second part of this finance
groups who typically have not had
Experience from the private sector
brief offers strategies for managing
suggests that to effectively imple-
much power in managing schools.
the change to school-based
ment school-based management,
The idea of using SBM as a
management.
districts need to design plans that
vehicle for giving more authority
not only transfer real authority to
School-Based
school sites but also expand the
to classroom teachers is common.
is seen as
Indeed, SBM often
Management: Lessons
definition of SBM to include con-
synonymous with empowering
trol over information, knowledge
About What Works
teachers. Most districts that insti-
and rewards. Drawing from suc-
In the education arena, school-
tuted SBM through collective
cessful decentralization approaches
based management has been
bargainingsuch as Dade County,
in public schools and in the private
viewed largely as a political
Florida and Los Angeles,
sector, strategies for decentralizing
reform that transfers power (au-
resources in each of these four
Californiaprovided teachers with
thority) over budget, personnel
majority representation on site
areas are discussed below.
and curriculum to individual
councils. In doing so, districts
schools. Little attention has been
simultaneously decentralized
Power. The main focus of school-
given to empowering school sites
power to the schools and elevated
based management has been the
with control over information,
decentralization of power. The
teachers' influence to higher levels
professional development (knowl-
in the organization.
question is, "Who at the school
edge) or compensation systems
site is the power given to?" Power
2
'I
It may be, however, that group
might be defined by grade level or
reasons that include economies of
empowerment is not the most
academic department. Such teams
scale, demands of the marketplace
could be given the authority to
effective means of school manage-
or legal requirements.
ment. Studies of effective public
make resource trade-offs and to
School districts that are imple-
schools agree that a strong central
manage the way they perform their
leader, like the principal, is key to
jobs.
menting school-based management
successful management. An effec-
should consider these additional
tive leader can set the school's
A second strategy that also breaks
mechanisms for participation and
vision, serve as an instructional
big companies into smaller units is
involvement. As pointed out, each
leader, coordinate reform efforts
is suitable for a different purpose.
and rally support for the school. A
SBM plans should create partici-
few districtssuch as Edmonton,
pative mechanisms that are geared
Canada and Prince William Coun-
toward improving specific areas
ty, Virginiahave empowered the
such as curriculum, teaching, and
school principal under SBM. This
day-to-day operations.
model also is used by independent
elite schools that tend to have high
Knowledge. In the private sector,
student achievement: power be-
three kinds of knowledge and
skills are important to
longs to the head.
decentralized management. First,
A second concern in designing
employees need training to expand
SBM is what powers should be
their job skills and increase the
given to school sites. SBM pro-
breadth of their perspective, so
grams generally delegate at least
that they can contribute in more
some control over budget, person-
ways to the organization and more
nel and curriculum decisions,
knowledgeably to decisions about
the creation of mini-enterprises.
improvements. Secondly,
however, some SBM programs
Mini-enterprises in schools could
limit control to only one or two of
individuals need teamwork skills
be groups of students organized
these areas. Budgetary powers
for participating in high-in-
into "houses" or "cadres" and
usually are the first to be decen-
volvement management: problem-
taught by teams of teachers,
solving, decision-making and
tralized.
similar to school designs advocated
communication skills. Finally,
by Theodore Sizer and Henry
Some private sector organizations
individuals need organizational
Levin. In the private sector, each
knowledge. This includes
have increased performance by
is em-
mini-enterprise typically
establishing small self-managing
budgeting and personnel skills, as
powered to make decisions about
production units with full authority
well as an understanding of the
resource allocation and is given
over resources, including budget
environment and strategies for
incentives to optimize perfor-
and personnel. Following this
responding to changes in the
mance.
model, the most effective SBM
environment.
programs would be ones where
A third approach is to use special
schools are liven lump-sum bud-
School districts under SBM have
purpose, or "parallel" structures.
gets to allocate according to local
given at least some attention to the
Quality improvement teams, often
needs and the authority to hire and
first two areas. Districts routinely
made up of employees at varying
fire school staff, including princi-
offer training, primarily to school-
levels, and union/management
pals and teachers.
site councils, on how to organize
committees have been used to
meetings and how to develop con-
build consensus among employees
The transfer of power in the pri-
sensus, although perhaps not with
with different responsibilities on
vate sector occurs through various
sufficient attention to the particular
what organizational improvements
strategies. Each strategy aims to
kinds of issues and problems coun-
should be made and how changes
empower the organization's em-
cil members will face. In addition,
should be designed.
districts pay some attention to
ployees, which in education would
be mainly teachers and administra-
expanding teachers' knowledge
Finally, companies in the private
tors. One strategy is self-contained
about the instructional and pro-
sector have used representative
teams, made up of employees who
grammatic changes of the schools,
task teams to enable operating
produce a defined product or
including knowledge about teach-
units to have input into decisions
deliver a service to a defined set of
ing, learning and curriculum. Such
that are best done uniformly
customers. Within schools, teams
efforts, however, are not neces-
throughout the organization for
3
sharing information among
Although there is yet very little
sarily considered part of SBM and
participants, particularly at the
research about the role of new
usually provide much less profes-
Indeed, the major
school site.
knowledge in SBM, lessons from
sional development than is needed.
focus in districts under SBM
the private sector suggest that
appears to be how information is
participants in the process need a
Districts under SBM have done
shared vertically between indivi-
complex understanding of both
even less to develop general orga-
dual schools and the district office,
decentralized school governance
nizational skills among SBM par-
and whether schools are adhering
and instructional reform. How-
ticipants. This is a serious short-
to regulatory policies. Many
ever, it does not appear that the
coming, given the focus in many
districts provide schools with
only strategy for increasing
districts on decentralizing function-
standardized test data.
knowledge lies in moving curricu-
al tasks, such as budgeting and
lum and instruction experts from
personnel. There also has been an
School districts under SBM, how-
the central office to the schools.
absence of training for district
ever, are only beginning to
Rather, studies indicate that the
office personnel whose roles like-
provide sites with the information
more promising approaches are
wise change under SBM. Thus,
about organizational performance
joint efforts. These efforts draw
school districts implementing de-
needed to develop school-based
upon the knowledge of teachers,
centralized management need to
plans, for instance. To the extent
administrators and outside experts
encourage a wider variety of train-
schools are expected to meet
and feature ongoing staff develop-
ing experiences that support new
districtwide goals, individuals at
ment in which participants at all
operating practices in both the
the school site need information
levels enrich the system with their
district office and school site.
about their performance relative to
acquired knowledge and insight,
those goals. In addition, schools,
while drawing on new sources of
A common practice in many dis-
like companies, must have
understanding.
information about their perform-
ance relative to other schools,
Information. Power can only be
whether or not they are competing
decentralized if the individuals to
with others as in a market-based
whom power is entrusted have
choice plan.
access to the information necessary
to make good decisions. In the
Finally, schools need information
private sector, as well as in public
about the extent to which they are
education, much information his-
meeting their clients'parents and
torically has been available only at
studentsneeds.
All such
the top of the organization.
information, moreover, needs to
Companies practicing high-
be available to schools in a timely
fashion, so that modifications can
involvement management have
to have district offices
tricts
is
be made inroad to improve
developed ways to collect and
provide training and consulting
organizational performance.
share information about organiza-
services to the schools. Implicit in
tional goals, finance and cost
such plans is the belief that central
A mission statement is one tool
structures, environmental issues,
office staff have the knowledge
that can be used by educators at
the customer and organizational
that individuals at the site lack.
the school site to help them to
performance. The companies
Sometimes this is true, but often it
define school goals, measure
provide trend and "benchmark"
is not. A few districts have recog-
progress toward reaching the
data to allow units to compare
nized the need to draw upon the
goals, and to share information
their performance over time, and
knowledge of educators at the
with the community-at-large.
with other organizational units and
school site. For example, Dade
Research in the 1980s on effective
other organizations in the field.
County established the Dade Acad-
Further, they find ways to
schools found many of them have
emy for the Teaching Arts which
written mission statements defining
disseminate innovations that are
offers training that is planned and
the school culture and environ-
occurring in their organization and
operated exclusively by teachers
ment. Such information also
in other organizations that are
is
for teachers. Some districts under
prevalent at independent schools
dealing with the same issues.
SBM, such as Chicago, Illinois,
whose survival depends on their
and Edmonton, Canada, allow
ability to communicate unique
Public schools implementing
schools to purchase staff develop-
attributes to prospective parents
decentralized management have
ment services from experts outside
and students. Independent schools
not focused much attention on
the district.
4
r-
stress business information
also
since sound finances, information
about tuition, salaries,
r4
enrollments, sources of income
and types of expenditures also are
crucial to the schools' survival.
Besides the content of information,
how information is transmitted to
the school community is im-
portant. With public schools,
informal methods of communica-
tion are most prevalent: parent-
teacher conferences, collegial
sharing among teachers, and ad
hoc meetings with visible,
accessible administrators. By
contrast, independent schools tend
to favor more formalized
approaches for transmitting
information. Explicit written codes
Rewards. Translating decen-
derstood in the private sector that
of conduct have become the norm.
tralized reward structures of
high performance will lead to
greater profits, but funding in
business to education is probably
Procedures dealing with conflict
the greatest challenge to SBM.
public education is rarely affected
faculty compensa-
management,
Skills-based pay schemes in
by evidence about performance.
tion, job descriptions, strategic
decentralized private sector
plans, and methods and timetables
Few districts engaged in SBM
organizations reward employees
for meeting goals are typically
have decentralized financial
for the knowledge and skills they
written down and distributed to the
possess. In education, reward
rewards. Teachers continue to be
school community. This written
paid on a standardized salary scale
systems tend to use indirect, proxy
information is one way heads of
-and districts continue to allocate
measures of knowledge and skills,
independent schools communicate
funds on a per pupil basis. The
namely the years of education and
the school's mission to the
experience a teacher has
issue of performance-based
community.
rewards in schools is elusive for
accumulated. 2
many reasons, including the
Studies in the 1980s of effective
Decentralized management plans
multitude of purposes that various
public schools suggest that they
in the private sector often include
stakeholders have for the schools,
also transmit formal written infor-
the value differences that divide
components that reward employees
mation about performance expecta-
for performance. A
educators and the community, and
collectively
tions for students and staff, but not
the resistance of teachers and
key lesson from the private sector
to the extent of independent
teacher organizations to the
is that decentralized management
schools.
is most effective when there
concept.
is
consensus on performance
School districts under SBM need
measures and units can be held
For example, policymakers often
to develop more systematic and
like the idea of rewarding
accountable for performance.
varied strategies for sharing
Employees need to see the
successful schools with more
information at the school site, as
relationship between pay and
resources, but budget constraints
well as with the district office and
performance. Such conditions,
often would oblige them to allocate
with other schools serving similar
however, do not often exist in
less to schools that are failing, an
student populations.
Portfolio
untenable approach to school
education. Furthermore, it
is un-
assessments, such as those used in
improvement. Competitive merit
Vermont and districts such as
pay plans exist in a few places.
2For a detailed discussion of alternative
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Roches-
However, the systems tend to
skills-based pay systems in education, see
ter, New York, and San Diego,
Odden, A. R. & S. Conley. "Restructuring
differentiate little among teachers
California, may be one way to
Teacher
Systems,"
Compensation
in
and schools, and tend not to last
Odden, A. R. (Ed.),
broaden information systems and
Rethinking School
over time.
Finance: An Agenda for the 1990s (San
provide feedback on school
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992).
productivity.
5
successful unless a compelling
participants. Rewards can motivate
Several districts actively involved
case is made for it.
Districts
in SBM continue to develop
individuals to use their enhanced
districtwide career ladders.
embarking on SBM should be very
resources (power, information and
clear about the need for change
knowledge) to further districtwide
However, such reforms typically
and the ultimate purpose of the
and school-based goals. Rewards
are not skills-based pay schemes
change process.
also can be used to align the goals
but strategies for increasing the
of people at the district office and
pay of teachers who take on more
In the private sector, need is
work. For example, both
school sites who have different
clearly established by the market-
preferences and value different
Cincinnati, Ohio and Rochester
placeby the changes that are
outcomes.
identify lead teachers who assume
required to successfully compete
special responsibilities and earn
and to meet the demands of cus-
Managing
extra pay.
tomers. School districts will have
the Change to SBM
to make a case for the need for
Monetary rewards are not the only
The transition to SBM entails
change based on gaps in the
extrinsic (or external) motivator
large-scale change in educational
schools' abilities to meet demands
available. Other possibilities
in-
Successful decen-
organizations.
being placed on them and to pro-
clude sabbaticals or opportunities
tralization requires that systems
vide educational services needed
to pursue full-time studies. In
and processes be redesigned so
by their communities.
addition, prestigious mentor teach-
that power, knowledge, and infor-
er positions could be created to
mation accrue at the operating
Understanding the need for change
help guide less experienced teach-
levels of the school, and so that
is the first step in a transition.
ers. Another possibility would be
Having a vision of what the
rewards are contingent on perfor-
to provide teachers with opportuni-
mance and contribution. New
ties to further their education
change entails and what it is trying
recruitment practices are needed to
to accomplish is the next. This in-
through professional conferences,
attract people who will thrive on
classes at local colleges and cludes defining high performance
the challenge of working in a
in a manner that can be agreed to
universities, or involvement in
decentralized setting: development
by the various stakeholders who
teacher networks focused on some
practices must be altered and
become partners in the effort. An
aspect of curriculum, teaching and
greatly supplemented to ensure
explicit focus on educational out-
assessment.
that participants have needed
comes frames the change to SBM
in a way that replaces issues of
competencies.
clear from research about
It
is
who gains and who loses power.
work in schools that an effective
The transformation eventually
Developing a shared vision of the
reward system also must include
involves all organizational compo-
organization links people together
opportunities for achieving intrin-
nents, including strategy,
and provides goals and criteria for
(internal) rewards. There is
sic
structure, technology, processes,
change activities and ongoing
substantial evidence that although
rewards and other human
decisions. School districts and the
pay is an important concern, many
resources systems. All of these
schools within them should involve
teachers are motivated strongly by
stakeholders at all levels in
components need to fit with the
intrinsic factors such as achieving
new way of managing and with
forming the vision, and then in
success with students or enjoying
each other.
substance at the local
giving
it
collaborative work with peers.
level. Superintendents and princi-
Large-scale change is threatening
pals will play a key role in making
Consider, for example, teachers in
to the people involved, because it
this happen.
independent schools who are paid
entails new roles and responsibili-
considerably less than their public
ties and because it challenges
Change structures and roles. In
school counterparts. The evidence
school-based management.
traditional assumptions and values.
suggests non-monetary factorsan
The change process has to be
creating and empowering the site
environment conducive to learn-
carefully managed. Several change
council often has been the main
ing, seeing positive results in stu-
management strategies are
change intervention. The council is
dent performance and control of
expected to make decisions to
discussed below.
the classroommotivate these
change the nature and effectiveness
teachers.
Vision. Large-scale change such
of the education that goes on in the
as a transition to SBM is such a
school. Thus, councils become
School districts under SBM need
disruption of the status quo of an
change agents in schools, and
to devise new approachesboth
will not be
organization that
should be educated accordingly.
it
extrinsic and intrinsicto reward
6
4
The role of teachers also changes
in a fundamental way. Although
they have always managed their
own classrooms, SBM implies an
extension of their focus to include
participating in shaping the school
environment, creating the school
vision, working with other
stakeholders to determine goals
and objectives, and taking respon-
q61:4.14Vilkyig?
sibility for resource allocation and
use. Their influence shifts from
individual control over their
classroom domain to influence
exercised in a variety of collective
forums, inc:uding councils, prob-
lem-solving groups, and various
kinds of work teams.
Other roles also change extensive-
ly. Participation by parents, stu-
dents and other community
stakeholders on school councils
implies a basic shift from advocat-
They will have to know how to
pivotal in successful decentraliza-
ing personal viewpoints to partici-
tion. The management role
design change in the school and
pating in a forum that must take a
changes from directive and
how to manage the dynamics of
schoolwide view and address the
change, including the natural
control-oriented to a role that
concerns of many different
stages of transition and the
involves creating an empowering
stakeholders.
resistance that is associated with it.
environment in which teachers can
easily try out new approaches. The
This will require considerable
In addition, as implementation
new role includes facilitating and
team building to develop trust and
unfolds, the council will
coaching for high performance,
likely
willingness to work through
spawn other change structures to
ensuring that proper resources are
differences and develop a
develop and implement new
in place, making certain that the
consensus.
approaches, and the work of
development needs of participants
various change groups will have to
are addressed, and freeing teachers
Even the role of district staff
he coordinated and nurtured.
up to make changes so that school
changes from planning and
sites truly become the focus of
overseeing various aspects of
In the private sector, multi-
continuous improvement.
school functioning
to becoming
stakeholder steering groups have
responsive service groups whose
Superintendents will have to
needed education regarding their
customers are the operating units
actively model new leadership
own group process, organizational
in the schools. Increasingly these
design principles and change man-
roles, set expectations and provide
groups will exist to support
agement approaches. Although
feedback to district-level managers
changes emanating from the
and school principals about the
SBM councils often receive train-
schools rather than to initiate
ing in group process, a more
change expected in how they
change that will be rolled out to
extensive set of skills and
perform their roles. Principals, as
the schools.
knowledge will be required, if the
the heads of organizational units.
council is to play out its potential
will have to provide leadership in
In sum, the transition to SBM
to spur meaningful change and
the organizational transition, and
involves extensive change in roles
model and reinforce the new
improvement in the school.
that must be accompanied by
behaviors. Increasingly, principals
intensive development of new
The role of school management
will find themselves exerting lead-
skills and capabilities. It cannot be
principals and superintendents
ership in collective forums, such
understood simply as a transfer of
has not received much attention in
as councils, where their influence
power. Rather, it is the establish-
SBM plans. Private sector experi-
is exercised as a group member
ment of new and vital roles for
ence has found that such roles are
rather than hierarchically.
7
(-)
of new site-based information
the capabilities of the organization.
many stakeholders, and it will not
systems, including measurement
succeed unless development is
planned and resources are
and feedback systems, financial
Among the key resources are time
and budgeting systems, and new
and money for the extensive skills-
provided.
reward systems. The development
development process required to
of these systems will take expert
support the new way of function-
Resources. In the private sector,
time, but also should be done in a
the transition to decentralized
ing. Development of individuals'
participative way so that the
management has been found to
capabilities and team development
various stakeholders understand
of the various councils and other
unfold over a minimum of three to
collaborative structures require
and help shape them. Again, this
five years, during which the capa-
involves freeing up people to
bilities of the organization are
finding expertise to help with the
process and time for it to occur.
participate.
gradually enhanced and the sys-
Schools will have to find ways to
tems, processes and structures are
free-up participants for such
State and Local Policy
brought slowly into alignment with
development.
Implications
the new decentralized vision. This
process requires a tremendous
Redesigning educational systems to
In addition, school districts will
amount of resources: time, energy
improve student learning and
have to invest in the development
and money. It is an investment in
Working Papers on School-Based Management
CPRE
FINANCE CENTER
The following working papers related to school-based management are available from the CPRE
FINANCE CENTER with a $10.00 pre-payment for each paper. Please make checks payable to the
University of Southern California/CPRE and send your requests to: CPRE Finance Center, USC
School of Education, Waite. Phillips Hall 901, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031.
School-Based Management and Teachers:
Applying Employee Involvement in Schools
Strategies for Reform
Edward E. Lawler, Susan Albers Mohrman, Allan M.
Mohrman Jr.
Susan Moore Johnson and Katherine C. Boles
December 1991, 14 pp.
September 1992, 44 pp.
Rethinking Site-Based Management Policy and
Decentralizing Dollars Under School-Based
Research
Management: Have Policies Changed?
Allan Odden and Priscilla Wohlstetter
Priscilla Wohlstetter and Thomas Buffett
September 1991, 11 pp.
This article is available from Corwin Press. Educational
What Can U.S. Charter Schools Learn From
Policy, Vol. 6 No. 1, March 1992, 35-54.
England's Grant-Maintained Schools?
Priscilla Wohlstetter and Lesley Anderson
April 1992, JO pp.
Rethinking School Finance
Allan Odden, Editor
Decentralization Strategies. A Review of the
This book discusses finance issues related to
Effective Schools Literature
important topics of education reform such as:
Priscilla Wohlstetter and Roxanne Smyer
paying teachers for productivity, school site
September 1992, 29 pp.
management, incentives, choice, coordinated
High Involvement Management: An Overview
social services for children, and interstate
of Practice in the Private Sector
disparities. The book can be ordered for $28.95
from: Jossey-Bass, 350 Sansome Street, San
Susan Albers Mohrman
Francisco, CA 94104.
September 1992, 13 pp.
8
4J
specific features of the pay system
participants throughout the state.
that would make it operational at
their school site.
Local districts or consortia of local
districts could design the computer
systems needed to make inforn,a-
Conclusion
don available on-line to each
School-based management is an
school site about how resources
organizational approach that ex-
are being utilized, satisfaction
pands the local school site respon-
indicators, achievement indicators,
sibility and authority for the im-
and other relevant measures, so
provement of school performance.
that schools could track trends and
it provides local mecha-
Ideally,
compare themselves with similar
nisms for the introduction of new
school units.
approaches to education that result
in enhanced outcomes and that
Knowledge and Skills
better fill the needs of the local
States could set aside, over a five-
school performance requires con-
community.
year time period, a fixed percent-
siderable initiative and effort by
age of total education revenues (2-
individuals at the school sites. For
The implementation of SBM repre-
3 percent) for professional
the process to be successful, how-
sents a fundamental and systemic
development that is more in line
ever, there also needs to be
organizational change to increase
with skills ti:-.velopment budgets at
encouragement and support by
the local presence of four Key
the most productive private
resources: power, information,
those at district and state levels.
knowledge and skills, and
companies.
Here are some initiatives that can
be undertaken by states and local
performance-based rewards.
In
schools, SBM has been ap-
Local districts could initially use
school districts based on what we
those funds to train council mem-
proached largely as a political
know about successful decentrali-
bers, district and school leaders,
zation in the private sector.
phenomenon involving the transfer
and teachers in their new roles and
of power to local councils.
responsibilities. Over time, the
Power
funds could be given to schools for
Studies of decentralization in the
States could devise a timeline for
use in ongoing, site-based profes-
private sector, however, have
transferring budget and personnel
sionai development activities.
indicated that decentralization of
authority to school sites and
power is most likely to lead to
require full transfer by some
Rewards
performance improvement if
specified date.
accompanied by organizational
States could devote resources to
changes that enhance the
for a pay
developing templates
Local districts could exercise over-
information, knowledge and skills
system that would include skills-
sight over outcomes rather than
of local participants and that align
based pay, cost reduction gain-
process. Districts also could take
the reward system with clearly
sharing for schools that are able to
the lead in redefining the role of
articulated desired outcomes. This
increase performance while de-
the central office
as supportive
policy brief recommends that
creasing costs, and other forms of
rather than compliance-oriented,
states and local districts become
group-based performance pay, like
and encourage the development of
active in creating the conditions
in the process of
Kentucky
is
new structures at the school site to
for effective implementation of
doing. A state-mandated account-
move power closest to those re-
SBM.
ability system could peg perfor-
sponsible for educating groups of
mance rewards to a structure of
students.
goals and legitimate performance
measures.
Information
States could develop a prototype
Local districts could offer to pilot
information system of fiscal, stu-
the new pay system in individual
dent, teacher and outcomes data
schools for which the district has
that includes all the key elements
waived personnel regulations,
needed to engage in SBM. States
including union contracts.
Indi-
also could devote resources to
vidual schools, in turn, would
disseminating information about
have the flexibility to design
educational innovations to SBM
()