ERIC ED353939: Higher Education and Employment: The Changing Relationship. Recent Developments in Continuing Professional Education. Country Study: United States.

27 Pages·1992·0.42 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 353 939
HE 026 200
AUTHOR
Hunt, E. Stephen
TITLE
Higher Education and Employment: The Changing
Relationship. Recent Developments in Continuing
Professional Education. Country Study: United
States.
INSTITUTION
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development, Paris (France).
REPORT NO
OCDE/GD(92)21
PUB DATE
92
NOTE
27p.; For related documents, see HE 026 190-201.
PUB TYPE
Reports
Descriptive (141)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
Access to Education; Adult Education; Continuing
Education; Delivery Systems; Economic Factors;
Educational Demand; *Educational Trends; *Education
Work Relationship; Employment; Higher Education;
Labor Market; *Professional Continuing Education;
School Business Relationship; Trend Analysis
IDENTIFIERS
*United States
ABSTRACT
This report, one of a series of country studies
on
higher education and employment particularly in continuing
professional education, looks at recent developments in the United
States. A foreword briefly sketches the state of higher education in
general that provides the context for professional continuing
education in the United States. The report goes on to focus
on what
is known concerning the further education and training of qualified
postsecondary graduates outside of regular graduate level degree
programs noting that data available on continuing education of any
kind are not extensive. A short section formally defines the subject
by specifying the meaning of adult and continuing education
generally, postsecondary adult and continuing education, and finally
continuing professional education. A central section then presents
a
general idea of the scope of continuing professional education with
available data indicating that continuing professional education
tends to be oriented more toward perfecting specific skills
or
competencies and that trend data comparing 1969 with 1984 indicate
that there was an increase in employer-provided and
employer-sponsored continuing professional education during this
period. A final section discusses issues of current importance
such
as regulation, organization, delivery, and evaluation. (Contains 21
notes.) (a)
***********************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that
can be made
from the original document.
***********************************************************************
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
OCDE/GD(92)21
HIGHER EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT:
THE CHANGING RELATIONSHIP
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
UNITED STATES
COUNTRY REPORT
-
U.S. IMPAIRMENT OF EDUCATION
-PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
OECD
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
OECD
SI-Ka document has been rePrOduCe'l IS
received from the person or organization
originating it
O Minor changes nave been made to improve
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Points of view or opinions stoic:1in this docu-
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
ment do not necessaniy represent othcral
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
OERI position or policy
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO- OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Paris 1992
2
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
OCDE/GD(92)21
THE CHANGING RELATIONSHIP
HIGHER EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT:
Recent Developments in Continuing Professional Education
UNITED STATES
COUNTRY STUDY:
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Paris 1992
40815
FOR TECHNICAL REASONS, THIS DOCUMENT IS NOT AVAILABLE ON OLIS
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Paris. February 1992
English text only
THE CHANGING RELATIONSHIP
HIGHER EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT:
Recent Developments in Continuing Professional Education
Project iii):
UNITED STATES
COUNTRY STUDY:
of country studies
This report is
of a series
prepared in the
one
framework
Education Committee activity
on Higher Education
OECD
of the
and
Employment:
The Changing Relationship. deals with one of
the three main
It
topics covered by this activity, Recent Developments in Continuing Professional
Together with other country studies on this topic, it provides the
Education.
background information for the preparation of a Secretariat general report that
will be published by the OECD in 1992.
Country
studies and general reports are also being made available for
other two projects included
under this activity: Flows of Graduates
the
The
from Higher Education and their Entry into Working Life:
Higher Education and
Employment:
The Case of the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Recent Developments Continuing
The present
country
study
on in
Professional Education has been written by Dr. E. Stephen Hunt, senior research
with the Higher Education and Adult Learning Division of the Office of
analyst
US Department of Education.
The author acknowledges the support of
Research,
Divisional and Departmental colleagues
the
this paper,
in the preparation of
especially
Dr. Clifford Adelman,
Director of the
Higher Education and
Adult
Learning
The views
expressed are those
Division.
of the author
and do not
necessarily commit the national authorities concerned or the Organisation.
Copyright OECD, 1992.
ii
4
FOREWORD
relationship of postsecondary
education to
investigation of
The
the
States, especially in light of
is an important issue in the United
employment
public concern regarding the quality of undergraduate education and its
recent
The National
life chances of students.
contribution to improving the
actual
to these quality
in part, in response
Goals have been established,
Education
levels of education. A great
which are acknowledged
concerns to affect all
of independent research and scholarship is now being devoted to exploring
deal
the education and employment connection.
Obtaining a national perspective on this relationship has been the goal
the US contribution to the OECD activity, "Higher Education and Employment:
of
While the US contributed to all three projects of
Changing Relationship".
The
Activity (and thus this foreword summarises the overall US contribution),
this
professional education. The overall
monograph focuses on continuing
this
US
both
contribution uses derived
descriptive from government
data
and
present a
non-government author has attempted to
statistical
the
sources,
of the flow of students through US postsecondary education and into
impression
constrained by the necessary
This picture is
realities of US
workforce.
the
national complexity US educational
especially the scene (a
the
data,
of
multiplicity
of informal "systems" rather
than an organised national
system)
and the limitations on intrusive and exhaustive data collection.
picture despite
a huge
that
emerges,
the limitations,
The
is of
postsecondary educational enterprise that has continued to grow through most of
1980s, in
terms
of expenditures, enrollments,
the
graduates and numbers
of
a steady erosion
institutions.
There has been
of degree attainments
in the
humanities
and social sciences (and education), with a corresponding expansion
qualifications in the sciences, technical
professions and business.
of
Women
ethnic minorities have significantly expanded their
and
presence in all areas
with women
study
now comprising
degree levels,
and
all
of
a definite
at
majority
of all US
postsecondary students.
majority of all undergraduate
A
degree
earners are women,
as are master's
degree earners, with
professional
degree and doctorate earners still dominated by men (the trend is toward female
predominance at these levels, too).
Undergraduate
degree earners
tend
to follow two
distinct paths upon
r iduation, depending on the subject of study.
Individuals who earn degrees in
the
biological sciences, the arts and humanities
and the social sciences tend
go on to graduate studies and
if in the workforce
to
hold part-time or
low-status jobs.
Those who concentrated in the phyusical sciences, engineering
and the
pro'essions
business
(including
and education)
tend to
enter the
workforce
rather than pursue
further studies, and
they are more
likely than
other
students to hold
full-time
jobs that are related
to their studies and
have career potential.
that
It is noteworthy
that persons
from whatever
who obtain
field
full-time jobs in
their fields do
not appear to
differ
radically in such characteristics as starting salaries, except for engineers.
iii
Post-graduate students who earn the research doctorate have experienced
years. especially
employment opportunities
fall-off
in recent
in the
in
a
but this trend
humanities
and social sciences,
against the
must t.e measured
relatively high job success rate of doctorate earners across all subject fields
especially compared with undergraduate degree holders.
Despite problems. it
still generally true tht the more education
one possesses. the greater the
is
The increasing presence of overseas students
opportunity for statisfying work.
in US graduate programmes is evident from the data for the decade 1977-87.
The
unsurprisingly,
concentrations students
largest
such
rather
in
are.
of
business, engineering and the sciences
the fastest growing areas overall.
research on continuing education for
Comprehensive the professions in
Nevertheless, it is a
as with other countries
is only beginning.
the
US
educational enterprise
large
an even more diverse one than
and
the US,
in
In addition to traditional postsecondary
traditional
postsecondary education.
professional
unions independent
associations,
institutions, and
firms,
entrepreneurs
myriad
programmes
academic
offer
credit,
for
for
of
a
upgrading
professional
enrichment
licensure
simply
credit,
as
or
or
National data on this issue are only beginning to be collected
opportunities.
points to
systematic
information available
the
that
ways, but
in
is
a
fast-growing multi-billion dollar industry.
Washington. DC
iv
Contents
1
The Continuing Education of Professionals
Formally Defining the Subject
1
3
The Extent of Continuing Professional Education
11
The Nature of Continuing Professional Education
19
Conclusion
v
7
INTRODUCTION
nature
The
the
United
federal system
States, and
in
the
of
the
consequent limited role assigned to national agencies such as the Department of
means that national data collection in the
Education,
US is not a function of
regulatory
central
authority.
local
private
governments,
States,
and
organizations
are not compelled by law to report data to the Department except
certain
limited
circumstances (such
as enforcement
in
of the civil rights
Data collection
voluntary, not mandatory.
acts).
Furthermore, the data
is
that
may be
are limited by
requested
policies and
oversight bodies
strong
as the Office
(such
Management and Budget and
the Reduction in Paperwork
of
Act), not to mention a customary suspicion of governmental inquisitiveness that
is ingrained in the American political character.
Thus the data available from
national agencies in the United States may be less
extensive, less regular and
consistent, and less penetrating (in terms of analytical depth) than what might
be expected from societies with a tradition of tolerating both more centralized
authority and more detailed governmental examination of education issues.
Federal
Lack
such
however. does
not mean that the
of
power,
data
are inaccurate,
available
merely that
they are limited in
scope and
often
in nature, as political leaders seek
episodic
to repond
to specific concerns
which
with
once
dealt
not transformed into
are
ongoing, regular data
collection demands.
State
governments do the real work of close regulation in US education.
and
their data on local practices are usually quite detailed
closer to what
many
other national governments might do.
Unfortunately,
turning to US state
data for the information unavailable from Federal sources is no solution, since
no
state has data collection jurisdiction beyond its territory, and each state
has
education regulations. traditions, political interests, and socio- economic
concerns
California
its
of
example,
cannot
own.
for
serve as
data,
a
representative
national
practice, since California
of
US
operates a highly
regulated
state
US
standards)
education system.
and has
(by
demographic.
and cultural
economic
characteristics that
make it
unrepresentative of
the
whole country.
(The same could be said of any other state.)
Equally important
the
state sets
each
fact
that
is
its own
legal definitions
of education
so that compiling a national picture
concepts,
requires knowing each of these
systems and how to reconcile the various statistical procedures employed.
vi
THE CONTINUING EDUCATION OF PROFESSIONALS
concerning the
concentrates known
what further
report
on
This
is
and training of qualified postsecondary graduates outside of regular
education
graduate-level degree
completes
Anyone who regular degree
programmes.
a
even if they do so as a part-time or older student, is more than
programme,
picked
statistical reports of US degree
up the
likely annual
to be
in
completions compiled by the US Department of Education and other organizations.
Degree including
bachelor's, first-professional,
programmes, the associate,
described in detail in the other two projects
and doctorate.
master's,
are
The Flows of Graduates from Higher Education and
included under this activity:
Entry into Working Life; Higher Education and Employment:
their
The Case of
the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Postsecondary
education certainly does not end
with degree programmes,
some
important economic needs served
nor are
social and even
by
such
programmes.
Changing jobs.! (an important consideration in the US), obtaining a
license, learning a new technology, acquiring a special skill, qualifying for a
meeting mandatory study requirements
or a promotion,
are some of the
or
job
circumstances
that
participating continuing
are
by
met
professional
in
This type of education is often shorter
education. than a standard course of
more narrowly focused, and
frequently not offered for
formal academic
study,
Continuing professional
education
provided
may not
credit.
by
be
a
postsecondary educational
institution
rather
by
an
all employer,
at
professional association, or private firm or entrepreneur.
The
data available
any kind are
continuing education of
on
not very
extensive
or current, and those that exist
have usually been
lumped together
other kinds
with
of adult
Sorting
out the
education.
evidence on
actual
continuing
professional education
activity
from the rest
of these data
is
often
a speculative exercise at
best, but must be
attempted in order to
get
idea of the
nature and extent
some
of work-related continuing
education and
training.
This short
report
provides
the latest
available
national
information, and it also discusses plans for acquiring more detailed and up-to-
date data in the near future.
Formally Defining the Subject
The
postsecondary education system of the United States and the flow of
through
students
system
that
have
discussed
been
under
the
two
other
above-mentioned
projects.
that the
obvious
nature of
It
the American
is
student has been changing.
An increasing number of postsecondary
students are
employed
older,
part-time,
and
enrolled
irregular
at
intervals.
Unsurprisingly,
these data
hand in hand
with evidence that
go
students are
taking
longer to complete whatever postsecondary course of studies they begin,
and
many never complete their studies.
Such
developments point up the degree
to
which traditional postsecondary education in the
US has become blended
might say confused
some
with what used to
be two very different
sorts of
educational enterprises, adult education and continuing education.
.1111.11M.
has
education. historically,
Adult
Education.
Continuing
Adult
and
general education to people who
the provision of basic through advanced
meant
Normal age
over the normal age for the level of schooling they seek.
a
are
was based on an
artifact of traditional educational organization
conceptual
pre-school
education
began
formal
in
American
students
that
assumption
(depending
at age four, left primary school between ages 10-13
(kindergarten)
school around age 17 or
local school organization). and finished secondary
on
postsecondary
continued to
those who
For
quit
they
(unless
at
16).
18
education, traditional undergraduate studies would end with a bachelor's degree
Allowing for a year or two of variation along the way, this concept
at age 22.
start around
data
assup-,.on that "adult"
behind the common statistical
lies
be the provision
of formal
considered to
Thus, adult education was
age
24.
primary, secondary, or undergraduate postsecondary education to anyone over the
or 21-24
of 17-18
(high school)
school-leaving ages
graduation
general
or
(college).
used
education
continuing
and are
terms
education
adult
The
that
study offered
levels
at all
programmes of
denote
interchangeably
to
Some of
age to pursue their
educations.
persons over the traditional
enable
programmes provide basic literacy skills, some remedial instruction, and
these
beyond the
continuing their studies
persons who are
are intended for
others
Basic adult and/or continuing education
at which they last left school.
point
and secondary
skills and primary
of basic literacy
provision
to the
refers
the
and/or continuing education' also occurs at
Adult
to adults.
educations
adult/continuing education
College- or university-level
postsecondary
level.
courses, and
degree
of classes,
and provision
the organization
constitutes
the traditional college age range of 18-22.
programmes to people over
teaching of literacy skills
adult basic education, including the
While
English to non-native speakers), low-level job skills, and the completion
(and
it is not the focus of
primary and secondary education, is very important,
of
Nor is remedial instruction, for those who failed to acquire the
this
Report.
discussion that
The
to have
were
they supposed
received.
education
that
deals exclusively with postsecondary adult and continuing education.
follows
and/or
Postsecondary adult
Postsecondary Adult/Continuing Education.
on a major
general in nature, focused
education programmes may be
continuing
work-related
focused on
degree
programme,
traditional
or
subject like
a
because they do
programmes are so-called
not
General
and skills.
knowledge
for professional certification or
a person for a specific occupation,
prepare
In many
particular
further
study field.
in
for
recertification,
a
or
even formally
programmes do not
general adult/continuing education
instances
are often called
"general
identifiable subject, and
on a single
concentrate
studies" or "liberal arts".
Confusion can arise, however, in that some programmes that are identical
This is because
regular degree programmes are also called general studies.
to
rules often prevent colleges and universities from allowing non-
accreditation
normally used for them. such
programmes to be called by the names
traditional
master
business
bachelor
bachelor
accounting.
of
of
science,
as
of
Since nearly all adult or continuing education programmes
administration, etc.
students on
irregular
serve non-resident
that they
non-traditional
are
in
somet3mes
they are frequeatly forced to use these generic labels
schedules,
growing
number
A
disadvantage
their student
the
clients.
of
to
of
overcome
the
successfully
have
education
programmes
adult/continuing
imposed on them by traditional rules, however, and their programme
constraints
completed by
and degree titles are indistiguishable from those enrolled in and
regular students.
2