ERIC ED350896: Cognitive Factors in Academic Achievement.

10 Pages·1992·0.36 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
HE 025 872
ED 350 896
AUTHOR
Cuasay, Peter
Achievement.
Factors in Academic
TITLE
Cognitive
Service, New York, NY.
Higher Education Extension
INSTITUTION
PUB DATE
92
NOTE
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PUB TYPE
Collected Works
Higher Education Extension Service Review; v3 n3 Spr
JOURNAL CIT
1992
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*Academic Achievement; *Cognitive Ability; *Cognitive
DESCRIPTORS
Processes; Cognitive Style; Elementary Secondary
Education; Encoding (Psychology); Higher Education;
*Learning Processes; Learning Theories; Long Term
Memory; *Metacognition; Short Term Memory; Skill
Development; *Student Improvement; Thinking Skills
ABSTRACT
This review explores the factors of cognitive
processing, style, and metacognitive organization as they contribute
to academic success. Specific discussions consider aspects of short-
and long-term memory, including how these affect learning and
academic performance, and the keys to attaining long-term memory
capability by involving redundancy, thinking patterns, and meaning.
It is noted that arrangements emphasizing the relationship between
ideas and materials enhance learning, and successful learning
requires the storage of information in meaningful structures
carefully related to learners' prior knowledge and experience. In
addition, the article explains how encoding, practice, and cognitive
style all work to enhance a student's ability to learn and offers
insights on influencing each area to gain the best academic
performance from the student. Finally, the process by which the brain
organizes and monitors its cognitive resources is examined in
relation to using strategies to aid intelligent performance, the
success of which depends on the pursuit of the emotional,
attitudinal, and motivational orientations promoting academic
success. Contains 28 references. A brief Field Notes column (Carole
Morning) describes Stress on Analytical Reasoning (SOAR), a program
conducted jointly by Xavier University of Louisiana's mathematical,
engineering, and sciences departments and designed to promote math
and science curricula among selected minority engineering students.
(GLR)
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Volume 3, Number 3
Spring 1992
Higher
Education
Extension
7
Service
Cognitive Factors in
Field Notes
Academic Achievement
In 1991, HEES assisted
California State University at
Northridge (CSUN) in instituting a
To improve the academic per-
tional practices. In the following
Summer Bridge Program for select-
formance of students, higher edu-
discussion, intelligence is
ed entering minority engineering
described as the application of
cation administrators must consid-
students to improve their prepara-
er not only affective issues but
cognitive and metacognitive pro-
tion for the demands of college
intellectual ones as well. To better
cesses to learning and problem-
level mathematics, science and
understand the latter, the true
solving. Cognitive processing
engineering courses.
nature of intellectual performance
depends on brain functions, such
CSUN faculty and administrators
must be understood.
as short-term memori, long-term
considered various models for the
Colleges often depend upon
memory, encoding, and practice.
program and found the Stress on
tests that they believe will predict
Metacognitive processes involve
Analytical Reasoning (SOAR) pro--
college academic performance for
the management of cognitive pro-
gram, conducted jointly by the fac-
the students tested. IQ tests and
cesses, by techniques such as self-
ulty of Xavier University of
their correlates, however, measure
steering, thinking strategies, func-
Louisiana's mathematics, engineer-
only three aspects of intelligence:
tional principles, and mental
ing and sciences departments, to
inherited intellectual ability, con-
preparation involving attitudes and
be particularly effective. According
tent knowledge, and problem-
emotions. The interaction of cogni-
to U.S. News and World Report
solving skills. Since it is assumed
tive and metacognitive activities is
(Toth, 1990), Xavier places more
that inherited ability is fixed, most
dynamic and complex, and indi-
African-American students into
pedagogy in higher education,
vidual differences appear in every
medical school than any other
then, is geared toward increasing
aspect. Nonetheless, it is possible
institution, including Harvard,
students' content knowledge and
to describe a model of how peo-
Yale, Columbia or University of
improving their problem-solving
ple think and learn generally, that
Michigan, with the only exception
illustrates how effective academic
skills.
being Howard University, a school
IQ-type measures do not
performance takes place.
four times its size. Twenty percent
include the wide variety of abili-
Cognitive Processing
of Xavier's graduating seniors go
ties with which colleges should be
on to medical or dental schools,
concerned; intelligence is a broad-
Short-term Memory
and no less than 55% of Xavier
er and more complex concept
Short-term memory, or working
undergraduates major in math, sci-
than IQ (Gardner, 1985; Sternberg,
memory, refers to the capacity for
ence or engineering. Evaluations
1985). It goes beyond results
keeping a limited amount of infor-
of the SOAR approach indicate fur-
obtained from pencil-and-paper
mation in a special active state.
ther that participating students
exercises to include many other
Conscious mental work is done in
achieve better grades and show
writing,
cognitive activities
short-term memory. Information
greater persistence in the math/sci-
reading, discussion, coping with
from the external environment or
ence curricula at Xavier than non-
novelty, forming reasoned judg-
from memory in general can be
participants (Sevenair, et. al.,
ments, for example, as well as atti-
used only in this activated state. In
1987).
tudes and emotions as they influ-
fact, the speed of cognitive pro-
ence intellectual activities.
cessing varies directly with the
(continued on page 7)
Emerging cognitive science
degree of short-term memory acti-
REVIEW is a quarterly publication of the
research offers new views of intel-
vation (Anderson, 1985). When
Higher Education Extension Service.
lectual performance that can con-
doing intellectual work in short-
Charles j. Hamilton, Esq.
Chairman
tribute to more effective educa-
term memory, relevant informa-
Carole Morning,
Director
3
neural functioning has led to the
clusters of features resulting when
tion already learned is retrieved
argument that cognitive efficiency
individuals divide up an informa-
from memory, activated, and com-
is the root of all intelligence and
tion load into manageable units.
bined with new information from
has an extensive genetic basis. The
Chunking is the primary means of
the environment. Learning
argument is that if intelligence is
processing conscious material in
depends on this integration of
reducible, in principle, to general
short-term memory. It enables the
prior knowledge with new infor-
physiological factors correlated
manipulation of greater amounts
mation. The accurate, speedy pas-
with neural speed and cellular con-
of information and it readies infor-
sage of the products of this inte-
figuration, then intelleczaal poten-
mation for entrance into long-term
gration from short-term memory to
tial is limited by the genes control-
memory. For example, when test-
appropriately structured long-term
ling such factors. However,
ing memorization of syllabic
memory is tie neurological corre-
currently accepted con epts argue
strings, the processing load initially
late of successful learning
against the geneticey fixed limits
is simply the number of syllables.
(Atkinson & Schiffrin, 1968; 1971).
imposed by some general factor
But while subjects can only
Short-term memory, however,
theories of intelligen.:e.
retrieve three nonsense syllables,
has a very limited capacity. Only a
For example, the ir ost popular
they can recall a string of six
small amount of information can
general factor theory ,oday is per-
monosyllabic words (a doubling of
be active in short-term memory,
haps the theory of "f., lid" and
the processing load), and they can
and this information is lost within
"crystallized" abilitie;1 (Catell,
remember three four-syllable
15 to 30 seconds if it is not
1943;1963; Horn, 1976). "Fluid"
words (twelve syllables - apparent-
rehearsed (Reed, 1988). A phone
mental functioning (GO is "a gener-
ly doubling the load again). If
number, for example, is rapidly
al ability to discriminate relations,"
mnemonic techniques are used,
forgotten unless repeated to one-
while "crystallizer,' ability (Gc)
such as applying a single feature
self to sustain its activation.
involves "discriminatory habits long
to a set of syllables, larger amounts
Experiments indicate that an aver-
established in a particular field"
can be memorized. "Every Good
age short-term memory capacity
(Lohman, 1989, p. 339). In terms of
Boy Does Fine" is a single thought
ranges from 3.4 items for nonsense
this theory, general reasoning abili-
that many use to remember the
syllables, to 3.8 for random forms,
ty, often thought of as one's hered-
notes E, G, B, D, and F of the tre-
to 5.3 for geometrical shapes, to
itary intellectual ability, correlates
ble clef. The reason the processing
5.5 for words, to 6.4 for letters, to
with Gf; learned skills and knowl-
load limits appear to increase,
7.1 for colors, and to 7.7 for digits.
edge gleaned from one's experi-
then, is that it is not simply the
Cavanagh (1972) has explained
ence correlates with Gc. Over time,
number of syllables or discrete
this range with the theory that
however, the difference between
unrelated features, but the number
stimuli are represented or encoded
an inherited fluid ability and a
of meaningful ctiunks that counts.
into short-term memory as a list of
learned crystallized product of edu-
These meaningful groupings are
features. A color or word may be
cation has progressively narrowed.
the units of memory, and a chunk
represented in short-term memory
By 1985, Horn (1985, p.289) was
can, at one level, subsume a large
by fewer features than a nonsense
saying that "There are good rea-
number of features, and at another
syllable or random form because
sons to believe that Gf is learned
level be just one element of a larg-
more features are needed to speci-
as much as Gc, and that Gc is
er whole (Anderson, 1985). One
fy the more unfamiliar items.
inherited as much as Gf." Instead
may ultimately memorize a speech
Assuming that the processing time
of determining whether intellectual
by reducing it to a few related
for each feature is the same, more
ability derives most from inheri-
chunks representing major con-
items represented by fewer fea-
tance or from learning, even the
cepts, although initially several fea-
tures should require as much time
quantitative view has led to a more
tures per sentence may have been
to access as fewer items with more
context sensitive theory distin-
required to represent each point in
features. In the example above, it
guishing between short-term and
short-term memory. Thus, when
should take approximately the
long-term applications of cognitive
the few chunks that fit into short-
same amount of time to search for
processes:
term memory each accommodate a
3 nonsense syllables as it takes for
Gc and Gf develop through
large amount of relevant informa-
7 digits. It turns out that it does
exercise, and perhaps both can
tion, and when each of these
take the same amount of time,
be understood as variations on a
chunks also relates significantly to
about one quarter of a second, in
central production system devel-
others and to relevant prior knowl-
each case.
cpment (Snow, 1981, p. 360).
edge, the processing capability of
How can all the needed infor-
working memory expands. The
mation be processed when short-
Long-Term Memory
"design" characteristics of learning.
term memory is so limited? In a
While chunking enables groups
then, are more important than
famous paper, Miller (1956) found
of features to be manipulated in
reliance upon the brute speed of
that subjects in recall experiments
short-term memory, these clusters
neural machinery.
remember about seven "chunks"
are not the stable categories of
An overly quantitative view of
of information; "chunks" being
the ideal models or images in sub-
tionships will take, increasing reac-
knowledge making up long-term
jects' schemas tended to displace or
tion time. For example, using a
memory. Physically, long-term
override actual perceptions.
particular propositional network, it
memory appears to involve the
This does not mean that
will take slightly longer for a sub-
permanent storage of information
schemas are always unrealistic or
ject to respond to "Does a hawk
along pathways in the brain. From
maladaptive. Schemas are special-
have skin?" than to "Does a hawk
a cognitive science perspective,
ized, selective filters, key features
have feathers?" because the dis-
what distinguishes the expert from
brought into short-term memory
tance "hawk is a bird AND a bird
the novice in a given area is the
rather than superficial details.
has feathers" is two steps, while
retention of a vast store of informa-
Schemas enable people to "file"
thinking "hawk is a bird AND a
tion efficiently and appropriately
information into "slots" within an
bird is an animal AND animals
structured in long-term memory.
already formed structure, and to
have skin" takes three steps
Redundancy, pattern, and mean-
predict, infer, and orient them-
(Collins & Quil lian, 1969).
ing are keys to long-term memory
selves even in an unfamiliar situa-
If tight propositional networks
capability.
tion. For this reason, event
result in good academic perfor-
Redundancy was aptly illustrat-
schemas, which are a prototypical
mance, teachers must provide
ed for cybernetic theorist Warren
series of actions, rather than proto-
instruction that allows students to
McCulloch by his aging mother,
typical configurations of object
process new bits of knowledge in
who called it "keeping a little bit of
characteristics, are also called
relation to each other and to
everything everywhere." Although
"scripts." Knowing the script
knowledge already stored in long-
certain areas of the brain play criti-
involved, for example, in eating at
term memory. However, the tradi-
cal roles (e.g., Wernicke's Area and
a restaurant, enables a diner to get
tional college teaching method,
Broca's Area as speech centers),
most of the moves right whether
lectures, do not always relate to
higher functions and long-term
ordering burgers or bouillabaisse.
students' prior network of associa-
memory generally seem to be
Both scripts and hierarchical
tions, and this may explain why
stored along pathways throughout
schemas, however, may create arti-
they often fail to help students
the brain. The fact that localized
ficial realities and impair accurate
connect theory to their lived
brain damage rare:- destroys all
on of actual facts.
cogr
world. Often in lectures, words
traces of higher thinking skills sug-
Different cultures can have
and phrases only refer to disci-
gests that discrete bits of knowl-
schemas that incorporate different
pline-specific associations, present-
edge are stored permanently in dif-
emotions or attitudes as well as
ing meanings quite distant from
ferent pathways around the brain
other concepts. For example,
each other and from meanings
and can be linked together in con-
among Asian Americans help-seek-
found already in the long-term
sciousness by the activation of
ing behavior often operates in
memory of the student. In order to
many possible pathways.
terms of a schema that might be
relate to or alter a previous net-
Some of the ways pattern is
expressed as follows:
work, some sort of scaffolding or
built into long-term memory
(1) student and teacher form a
series of intermediate structures
include propositional networks, and
complementary dyad that is
should be offered to students.
hierarchical schemas. In a proposi-
both intellectual and affective:
Hierarchical schemas concern
tional network, meanings are treat-
students give teachers respect
even larger units of meaning than
ed hypothetically as words and
and deference and in exchange
propositional networks. Research
phrases that can be structured into
teachers give students nurtu-
shows that people tend to order
different arrangements and stored
rance and responsive authority;
their perceptions according to ide-
in different parts of the brain.
(2) teachers recognize good stu-
alized models. In one experiment,
Hence a single thought can be rep-
dents;
subjects were left alone in an office
resented as two or more simple
(3) good students will be support-
and then taken to the next room
sub-statements combined in ele-
ed or helped by teachers.
where they were told to write
mentary relationships. Such an
down everything they could
analysis creates a network of unit
Given this model, when good
remember about the office. Of the
meanings in which the cognitive
Asian American students need rec-
30 subjects, 29 recalled that the
"distance" between the units is
ommendations to advance their
office had a desk, chair, and walls,
reflected in the structure of the rela-
educations, they might expect their
but only eight remembered a skull
tionships linking them together. In
teachers to offer this support with-
on the shelf. Nine "recalled" the
theory, this network structure may
out prompting. If this does not
presence of books although the
also reflect the relative distances
happen, the students may feel that
office contained none (Brewer &
along certain pathways linking stor-
for some reason they have not
Treyens, 1981). Thus schemas are
age sites in the brain. The theory of
merited their teacher's nurturing
very powerful, often adding psy-
propositional networks predicts that
and responsive intervention. There
chological realities to memory: by
the greater the cognitive distance
have been qualified high school
placing the observed room in the
between items in stored knowl-
Asian Americans who missed
higher conceptual category "office,"
edge, the longer a search for rela-
5
3
zation, reduces the cost. Processing
applying to college because their
of information processing "in
automaticity is achieved when it
which individuals represent the
schema never anticipated that a
occurs without intention, does not
good student would need to solicit
task problem in working memory
give rise to conscious awareness,
recommendations.
and retrieve from long-term mem-
and does not interfere with other
Schemas are deeply embedded
ory information that may be rele-
mental activities (Posner & Snyder,
in cultures through individual
vant to problem solution" (1979, p.
1975). When a skill becomes auto-
human minds. They affect the
329). Encoding, required for both
matic, as driving a car is, the cost
frameworks in which information
representation and retrieval, is
of activation energy has been
is viewed. To access and modify therefore closely tied to schema-
"saved" and working memory is
such structures, elaborate or deep
induction, and so forms a critical
free for other concurrent tasks.
processing is required. In college,
link between short-term and long-
Properly spaced practice can
this involves intense engagement
term memory. It is different encod-
profoundly affect the amount of
in course material and handling
ing practices, and the resulting
practice time needed. For exam-
information in a wide variety of
schemas, plus the gains resulting
ple, during World War II, intensive
from practice (see below) that
relevant activities. Successful learn-
Morse code training was given to
ing results when new material is
explain much of the performance
students for up to seven hours a
integrated with information already
differences between experts and
day. But students who spent four
stored in a student's long-term
novices in a given area. Therefore,
hours a day in training, with
memory. Accurate, elaborated
it is important for teachers
longer periods off-task, developed
structures of knowledge facilitate
(experts) to appreciate that stu-
just as rapidly as the seven-hour
rapid recall and effective applica-
dents (novices) have not yet devel-
subjects, who were effectively
tion to problem situations.
oped the schema necessary for
wasting three hours a day
Deep or elaborate processing
quickly and accurately encoding
can be promoted by using creative
(Anderson, 1985).
problems.
formats to present new informa-
This spacing effect can be under-
Research on the encoding dif-
stood using the idea of encoding
tion. Thus music, drama, and asso-
ferences of experts and novices
shows that ewerts make qualita-
variability. Time between practices
ciated physical activity involve
makes it more likely that the prac-
tive judgments based on a wide
multi-sensory input that can
increase redundancy, pattern, and
tice context and the learner's
variety of general principles that
they know. For example, physics
encoding will be slightly different
meaning. Richly symbolic and
graphic representations also facili-
experts are not distracted by
each time. Also, as time between
tate long-term storage because
practice sessions leads to variety in
superficial features of problems;
they unite emotions with the
they apply correct equations that
practice, it is more likely that there
will be an overlap between one of
knowledge ;.o be acquired. The
will lead to the solution of the
power of such unions is attested to
problem, and before working out
the contexts in which a skill is
by the perseverance of myths, oral
the exact answer they often know
practiced and the context in which
heritage, and epic narrative.
it is required. Therefore, when
the rough result. Novice physics
In sum, chunking, propositional
students tend to classify problems
spacing is not possible, repetition
networks, scripts, schemas, and
over short lags can still benefit from
superficially, concentrating on
whether the problem involves
informational format all affect
encoding variability if the practice
learning through the structures of
context is changed often. That is, if
levers, pulleys, or inclined planes,
long-term memory. Arrangements
study sessions cannot be spaced,
and then identifying which equa-
emphasizing the relationship
the location for studying or the per-
tions go with each problem type.
between ideas and materials
spective taken on the material can
This is a strain on working memo-
enhance learning, and successful
ry avoided in expert schemas by
be varied (Anderson, 1985).
learning requires the storage of
recognizing or encoding a prob-
Cognitive Style
information in meaningful struc-
lem situation as an instance of a
tures carefully related to learners'
general physics principle, however The amazing performances
prior knowledge and experience.
attainable through practice raise
disguised by circumstances (Chi,
Students who possess fewer rele-
the issue of whether cognitive
Glaser & Rees, 1982).
vant schemas to which material
styles can be viewed as results of
Practice
can be connected will have greater
practice rather than as fixed, inher-
difficulty learning unless given
ited learning dispositions.
From a cognitive science per-
help in building appropriate
Cognitive styles have been defined
spective, thei e is an energy cost
schemas.
as "a person's typical modes of
associated with retrieving and
perceiving, remembering, thinking.
holding information in working
Encoding
and problem solving" (Messick,
memory. If this energy cost of acti-
Robert Sternberg, a major con-
vation is reduced, considerable
1970, p. 188). Since a style is an
tributor to current cognitive theory,
individual's personal, characteris-
gains in overall cognitive perfor-
defines encoding as the first stage
tic, consistent manner of process-
mance result. Practice, or automati-
b
4
Mathematical Preparation for
ed as constellations of automatic
ing and organizing their thoughts,
Physics course developed for
processing activities reinforced by
it is separate from measures of
enhancing student thinking, is a
practice, then students can be
intelligence or knowledge, reflect-
simple but profound dictum: "ask
trained to adjust their cognitive
ing simply the mode of perform-
hard questions about easy materi-
style to suit different situations. An
ing. Styles have been given labels
al." Doing this allows students to
essay assignment in history may
such as reflective, impulsive, field-
focus on methods for solving the
require emphasis on the search for
independent or field-dependent
problem without getting bogged
evidence, but the problem of pro-
labels that come from experimen-
down with problem parameters. In
viding for the survival of astro-
tal settings. Rose (1988) has argued
this way strategies and the appro-
nauts stranded on the moon may
that if cognitive styles are simply
priate conditions for their use are
require more emphasis on the
different modes of learning and
more readily automatized.
search for possibilities or goals.
doing, then both reflective and
Perkins (1985, p.340-341) has
Thus, students should be encour-
impulsive styles, for example,
summarized important points of
aged to draw on the strengths of
should display the same average
the argument for metacognitive
appropriate cognitive styles rather
level of achievement, and it should
instruction in these words:
than limiting learning to contexts
be just as likely to find high per-
of the one that they feel most.
formance in a field-dependent stu-
(1) IF you understand general cog-
comfortable using and usually
dent as in a field-independent one.
nitive-control strategies
employ.
In fact, however, cognitive typing
AND
does not seem to be neutral with
IF you are habitually ready to
Metacognitive
respect to achievement in Western
apply them
Organization
cultures; reflectiveness and field-
THEN you can be intellectually
independence tend to correlate
Metacognition refers to the pro-
competent.
with academic success, so that
cesses by which the brain orga-
(2) A few good cognitive strate-
impulsiveness a.id field-depen-
nizes and monitors its cognitive
gies, being highly general,
dence may eventually be carelessly
resources. It involves planning,
are more important than specific
used as no more than a
monitoring, and evaluating solu-
knowledge.
euphemism for low achievement.
tions to achieve cognitive control
(3) Cognitive strategies are teach-
It may be more useful to see
and to improve the effectiveness
able.
cognitive styles as products of
of thinking. Sternberg (1987) has
practice. Baron (1985) has suggest-
called the direction of attention
Perkins' arguments raise a num-
ed that cognitive styles can be sys-
and formulation of actions neces-
ber of issues. First, knowing what
tematized by relating them to three
sary to skilled performances,
strategy to use and when to use it
underlying search processes that
"executive processes." In Stern-
is critical to successful mental
form any intellectual performance:
berg's formulation, metacognition
functioning. For example, Larkin
search for possibilities, for evi-
is represented by six steps (1987,
(1979), investigating differences
dence, and for goals. Each of these
p.200-201):
between expert and novice
searches is affected by the cogni-
(1) define nature of problem,
approaches to problem s
tive processes covered above in
(2) select components or steps,
identified automatized, immediate
the discussions of storage and
(3) select strategy for ordering
responses as important to expert
retrieval of information from short-
components or steps,
strategies. She called the automatic
and long-term memory. A reflec-
(4) select a mental representation
responses "condition-action pairs."
tive style implies that the length of
of information,
One such pair is "seeing a red
search for evidence is relatively
(5) allocate mental resources, and
light and stopping the car."
long, while the same search is
(6) monitor solution.
rather short in an impulsive style.
When we teach students useful
Field-independence may mean that
Consideration of the structure of
actions we should be conscien-
the search for possibilities is more
memory leads to an important cau-
tious about teaching the condi-
often extended beyond the imme-
tion connected with meta cognitive
tions under which these actions
diate context; field-dependence
strategies: they themselves may
are useful. Perhaps students'
might translate into a search for
overload working memory. In
most common complaint about
goals that adjusts to the purposes
teaching for cognitive develop-
their problem-solving ability is
of the group or emphasizes text
ment, it is important that the strate-
that they "don't know how to
cues in formulating an answer.
gies meant to aid intelligent per-
get started" or "don't know how
When students habitually practice
formance not interfere with the
to decide what to do."...When
these search characteristics and
processing of the facts and vice
students don't learn appropriate
use their associated strategies, they
versa. Among the recommenda-
conditions, they too often learn
could well become largely auto-
tions of Bauman, Wdowiak, &
inappropriate ones. For exam-
matic (Baron, 1985).
Loomis (1979), drawn from the
ple, not infrequently, physics
If cognitive styles are interpret-
7
5
students think that principles
new material and previously given
should include both problem-find-
describing circular motion are
ing, not just problem-solving, and
concepts are made. According to
applicable to motion along any
procedures that help students
Larkin's description of experts, they
curved path; and so they try to
acquire further knowledge. An
utilize "Large Scale Functional
use these principles to describe
example appears in the description
Units" that make/available in a
the flight of baseballs! (Larkin,
coherent fashion "bits of informa-
given by Simon and Simon (1979)
1979, p. 112).
tion which are often used togeth-
of the two different approaches
taken by two experts presented
er... Individual items or slots in
Experts have a multitude of
the structure can be changed as the
with a complex word problem
condition-action units stored in
structure is used, but many parts of
involving astronauts stranded on
long-term memory, and thus they
the moon. While one solved the
the large unit simply remain as
are able to categorize a problem in
they were stored in memory"
immediately given problem of irri-
order to decide whether it can be
gating soil to grow food, the other
(1979, p. 113). This suggests that
simplified and a shortcut can be
assessed the entire situation and
cognitive strategies training should
found.
help students understand and
produced a manifold solution pro-
Using general principles in sim-
acquire the schemas and scripts
viding for shelter, water, oxygen,
ple situations can result in work
and food supply, along with a plan
that subject experts have devel-
which is clumsy and error
oped for encoding and reasoning.
identifying and meeting survival
prone...[But] skilled persons avoid
Instruction on problem-solving
needs. The latter approach derived
needlessly cumbersome applica-
should be very explicit and aimed
benefit from an executive,
tions of general actions by recog-
at aiding students to consolidate
metacognitive perspective enabling
nizing special conditions under
the integration of many goals and
day-to-day factual and theoretical
which simpler actions do as well.
bits into functional units. The prac-
methods in a life-like manner. This
By judiciously exposing learners to
tice of grouping students into pairs
kind of learning transfer, often
selected, special cases, one
or teams so that they must articu-
involving "rough drafts" and esti-
might...help them acquire the
late their thinking can provide an
mates, suggests that strategies that
skilled person's economy in apply-
environment for such development
are simple, but possibly not the
ing actions appropriate to the
of explicit procedures.
most efficient, may be preferable
complexity of the situation (Larkin,
because the student can use them
The goal of articulating explicit
1979, p. 112).
and specific methods must be bal-
as a basis for elaboration. In other
A second issue, especially for
anced with a concern for flexibility
words, directly teaching strategies
teachers, is how to infuse appro-
should not preclude indirect teach-
and qualitative insight. According
priate thinking skills into courses
to Larkin, it is clear that for experts
ing through which students
without unduly sacrificing class
"low detail, qualitative, often
become used to thinking widely,
time for presenting factual materi-
vague reasoning is crucial to prob-
and develop an awareness and
al. Asking of hard questions about
lem-solving" (1979, p. 116).
reflectiveness that go far beyond
easy material is a valuable
Typically such reasoning involves
items in test-measured perfor-
approach here, as is compressing
making a qualitative representation
mance (Perkins, 1985).
necessary facts into a memorable
of the problem (e.g., a labeled
Intelligence, unfortunately, con-
form. Like the ABC song of young-
sketch), tentatively selecting a
tinues to be viewed as unmodifi-
sters, formulas can be quickly
method to make qualitative state-
able not only by many educators,
learned and accessed through a
ments about the situation, check-
but by many students as well.
rhythmic or musical format.
ing the qualitative statements to
However, a fourth metacognitive
Current models of cognitive
see if any intractable difficulty
iss .e is that students can, in fact,
instruction also urge that only
would result, and only after all
be helped to "become smarter"
highly relevant and effective strate-
this, proceeding to calculating the
through assistance with non-intel-
gies be taught, that they be well-
precise solution. The lesson for
lectual development as well as
matched to the actual tasks and
metacognitive instruction is clearly
through cognitive training. Like any
materials presented in a course,
that it model and re-model strate-
other educational practice, teaching
and that only a few good strategies
gies, showing in all the rough and
metacognitive tactics takes place
be taught at a time and be taught
tumble of real practice exactly
against the background of learners'
well (Pressley, 1990).
what happens in application
prior knowledge and predisposi-
Rushing to cover too much new
(Pressley, 1990).
tions. The benefits of learning
material may also be unwarranted
A third issue concerns the indi-
strategies may not be apparent to
since it is the possession of key
rect benefits of cognitive skills
students hardened in the belief that
knowledge structures that enables
training. From his extensive work
they cannot learn well; their atti-
learners to acquire new informa-
in creative thinking, Perkins points
tudes can, thus, compromise the
tion rapidly. At the same time, new
out that textbook problem-solving
teachability of cognitive methods.
material may easily fall into disuse
is only one use for cognitive strate-
Metacognitive instruction, there-
unless connections between the
gies. Useful cognitive instruction
fore, cannot be undertak_n apart
6
tallized abilities and their correlates.
The theory of multiple intelligenees.
from the equally important effort to
In M. P. Friedman, J. P. Das, & N.
New York: Basic Books.
pursue the emotional, attitudinal,
O'Connor, (Eds.), Intelligence and
Horn, J. L. (1976). Human abilities: A
and motivational orientations pro-
learning. New York: Plenum Press.
review of research theory in the
moting academic success.
Sternberg, R.J. 0979). The nature of
early 1970s. Annual Review of
Peter Cuasay
mental activities. American
Psychology, 2Z 437-485.
Our appreciation goes to Dr Jack
Psychologist, 34, 214-230.
Horn, J. L. (1985). Remodeling old
Lochhead for his advice and assistance
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A
models of intelligence. In B. B.
in preparing this article.
triarchic theory of human intelli-
Wolman, (Ed.), Handbook of intelli-
gence. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
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(1971). The control of short term
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science research, begun in its pre-
Baron, J. (1985). What kinds of intelli-
D. E.Wiley (Eds.), The evaluation of
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New York: Holt, Rinehart &
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Winston.
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Piagetian-based approach to
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ber seven, plus or minus two: Some
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ing exam questions and scoring
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Because of the well-document-
Cavanagh, J. P. (1972). Relation
and applications. Pacific Grove, CA:
ed success of SOAR, the CSUN
between the immediate memory
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Bridge Program borrowed many of
span and the memory search rate.
Rose, M. (1988). Narrowing the mind
its techniques. Twenty African-
Psychological Review, 22, 525-530.
and page: Remedial writers and cog-
American and Latino students, con-
Chi, R., Glaser, S. & Rees, M. (1982).
nitive reductionism. College
Expertise in problem solving.In R. J.
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sidered to be "at risk" because of
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19, 267-302.
their underpreparation for college
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engineering, were selected to par-
(Vol.1). Hillsdale NJ.: Lawrence
tale of two protocols. In J. Lochhead
ticipate in the six-week residential
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ing thinking skills. Philadelphia:
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ry. Journal of Verbal Learning and
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African-American college students
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Snow, R. E. (1981). Toward a theory of
was provided by HEES to design
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aptitude for learning: Fluid and crys-
9
7
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
was a negative predictor of Fall
than the control group of non-
and teach the problem-solving
grades, and among students in
participants.
component, with advice from cog-
the control group, the SAT did
2) The grades received by students
nitive scientist Dr. Jack Lochhead,
not predict at all.
in the Lridge Problem-Solving
co-author of the course text,
Course refinements are under
course significantly correlated
Problem Solving and Compre-
way in preparation for offering the
with a number of indicators of
hension (Whimbey & Lochhead,
course on other campuses.
Fall academic performance,
1986).
including math performance.
To assess the effectiveness of
Carole Morning
3) Bridge students showed signifi-
the pilot program, the Fall aca-
References
cant improvement in their prob-
demic performance of Bridge stu-
lem-solving skills as measured
dents was compared to the perfor-
Sevenair, J.P., Carmichael, J.W.,
by the Whimbey Analytical
mance of a contrd group of 66
Bauer, J., Hunter, J.T., Labat, D.,
Skills Inventories (WASI). The
non-Bridge minority engineering
Vincent, H. & Jones, L.W.
degree of improvement correlat-
students. In addition, Bridge stu-
(1987). SERG: A model for col-
ed with students' SAT-M score.
dents were administered pre- and
leges without graduate pro-
In addition, the degree of
post- measures of various cogni-
grams. Journal of College
improvement in problem-solv-
tive skills and motivation.
Science Teaching, March/April,
ing skills correlated with stu-
The evaluation of the CSUN
444 446.
dents' effort (i.e. grades in
Summer Bridge program indicates
Toch, T. (1990). Teaching science
Summer Bridge courses), which
that:
the hard way. U.S. News and
is distinctly different from SAT
1) Participation in the Summer
World Report. May 28, 60-61.
measured aptitude.
Bridge program had a positive
Whimbey, A. & Lochhead, J.
4) As for many minority students,
impact on Fall academic perfor-
(1986). Problem Solving and
the SAT was not useful in pre-
mance. Bridge participants
Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ.:
dicting Fall grades. In fact,
achieved higher grades in math
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
among Bridge students.
SAT
and overall grade point average
cy-lt tritri?
+.
~Ss1
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