ERIC ED343756: Native American Education at a Turning Point: Current Demographics and Trends.

13 Pages·1991·0.79 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
RC 018 615
ED 343 756
Hillabrant, Walter; And Others
AUTHOR
Native American Education at a Turning Point: Current
TITLE
Demographics and Trends.
Department of Education, Washington, DC. Indian
SPONS AGENCY
Nacions At Risk Task Force.
91
PUB DATE
12p.; In: Indian Nations At Risk Task Force
NOTE
Commissioned Papers. See RC 018 612.
Information Analyses (070)
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Adult Education; *Alaska Natives; *American Indian
DESCRIPTORS
Education; *American Indians; *Demography;
Educational Attainment; Elementary Secondary
Education; Enrollment; *Enrollment Trends; *Financial
Support; Geographic Distribution; Higher Education;
Population Growth; Population Trends; Special
Education; Vocational Education
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses demography, statistics, and
trends related to Native American education and makes projections for
the year 2000. Based on linear regressions of earlier census data,
projections for 1990 and 2000 include: (1) fast population growth for
American Indians and Alaska Natives; (2) population growth shifts to
(3) an increas:aig aged population as well as a growing
urban areas;
school aged population; (4) changes in distribution among the states
(5) increasing but still lagging
of the Native population and tribes;
behind educational attainment; (6) low labor force participation; (7)
(8) high mortality rates among young people; (9)
high poverty rates;
varying but overall increasing enrollments for public, private, and
Bureau of Indian Affairs schools; (10) low enrollment in higher
education and limited major fields of study in management and social
sciences; (11) overall growing enrollments in adult education,
vocational education, vocational rehabilitation, and special
programs; (12) some gains in Native scores on the Scholastic Aptitude
Test and the American College Testing Program; (13) dropout rates;
(14) fluctuating but overall increasing educational.attainment; (15)
varying educational funding but decreasing federal aid; and (16)
teacher turnover, attrition, and salaries as major problems. This
paper contains 30 references. (SV)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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Native American Education at
a Turning Point:
Current Demographics and Trends
U.S DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION
Dace co Eclocabonai Research and Improvement
EDUCALONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CE.NTER IERICI
Walter Hillabiant, Ph.D., Mike Romano,
dOcument hale Dein reproduced as
received trom the person or copanitahdh
originating it
David Stang, Ph.D., Support Services, Inc.
0 Minor changes ht a Wan
to ImPloy
reproduction Quality
and Ince Charleston, Ph.D.
Points of view w opinions Stated in thtlICIOCIa,
ment do not necessarily repreeent Orval
OERI position or POO'
Preface
current trends, and to project where they will be in
10 years in the year 2000.
Counting the numbers ofAmerican Indians and
One big problem with demographic and statis-
Alaska Natives is difficult. Often the count is af-
tical analyses is that ifyou cannot assign a number
fected by such factors as who collect& the data, the
to something, you cannot analyse it. Thus in this
method of data collection, and the perceived objec-
paper, we spend most of our time discussing chan-
tives of the data collection effort. For example, the
ges in the quantity, rather than the quality of
number of American Indians and Alaska Natives
Native education. Quality issues are often much
reported in the 1980 census represented a 72 per-
more important than the issues of quantity.
cent increase over the 1970 census. The Census
The statistically-inclined reader might like th
Bureau estimathd that a significant proportion of
know more about our data. For anyone wishing to
the increase was attributable to factors other than
use the data underlying the findiugs presented in
natural population increase (births minus deaths).
this paper, we hope to make an automated file
Some of the growth was attribated to use of self-
available (through ERIC), which contains a public
identification for obtaining information pertaining
domain regression program and all the databases
to race (Johnson, Pai-eno, & Levin, 1988). In any
used in this report, along with MS DOS files con-
event, different defin.dons, procedures and efforts
taining all the results. This information will be
tend to produce different counts. In this paper, we
provided separately because the data and analyses
have used the available data, regardless of source
exceed 50 pages. Too much technical detail can
(e.g., Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of
obscure the most important facts, which will be the
Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs) without con-
focus of this paper.
firming the validity of the count.
At the time this paper was completed (early
Despite the variety of sources, the data
1991), the 1990 census reports for American In-
presented in this paper, especially when presented
dians and Alaska Natives were generally unavail-
in the context of trends over many years, some-
able to the public. As a result, Li most fif our
times over decades, seems to have a stuprising
analyses based on census data, figures for 1990
are
degree of consistency.
estimates based on linear regressions of data from
In this paper, we focus on the present situation
earlier vensusec. When the 1990 census data be-
and what we expect to see in the remainder of the
come available, they will be a good test of the
decade, to the year 2000. In order to project to lie
accuracy of our estimates. It is noteworthy %et the
filture, we have examined trends over the past. We
demographic, social, and economic characteristics
have often summarized such trends using linear
of American Indian tribes from the 1980 census
regression. This approach determines the straight
data were reloased in a Ceribas Bureau Publication
line that best fits the known data points and
in February, 1990, a full decade after the census
projecting the line to estimate future data points.
was completed.
For much of the data examined in this paper, we
provide fi forecast for the year 2000. It is important
Demographics of the Native
(1J
to note that these forecasts are often based on only
Population
a few years of data. Furthermore, data available
for Native students are often derived from small
CO
Overall Plpulation Growth
and/or poor samples. Unfortunately, it is the best
we have available on Native populations. We can-
The numbers of American Indians and Alaska
not over emphasize the need for better quality data
Natives are growing, and growing fast. The 1980
for Native populations. Despite these limitations,
census showed almost 1.4 million American In-
it is important to make an attempt to describe
dians and over 64,000 Alaska Natives. Our projec-
1 2
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Indians Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990e
Mons show a population of over 1.6 million
U.S. mew data from several decades, shows this
American Indians in 1990, and almost two million
growth. Prom 1950 to 1970, the number ofNatives
in the year 2000. Similarly, we project over 72,000
aged 0 to 20 years doubled. Prom 1970 to 1980, it
year
Alaska Natives in 19e0 and over 82,000 in the
almost doubled again. By 1990, we estimate there
2000, Despite the significant growth in the Native
will be 344,225 Native children aged 0-9 years; by
population, in 1980 it represented less than
one
the year 2000, there will be and estimated 408,163
ir
percent of the total U.S. population, and, if
Native children eged 0-9 years. Similarly, by 1990,
projections are correct, this percentage will not
we estimate there will be 378,012 Natives aged
change much by the year 2000.
10-19 years; by 2000 there will be 456,500 Natives
in this age group. While these projections must be
The Shift to Cities
thated with special caution because they
are
lined on only the data from the 1950, 1970, and
A starting point for discussion of the demog-
1980 censuses, they certainly suggest that there
raphy of Native education might be to note the
will be large increases in the Native student
steady growth of the Native population in urban
population over the nest decade. We will have a
relative to rural areas, not in every state, but as a
much better estimate of this growth when the 1990
general trend. Table 1 shows the 10 states with the
census data becomes available. If educators do not
highest Native population in the 1980
census, and
plan for this substantial growth, it is unlikely that
shows the trend of high urban population growth
big improvements in the educational outcomes of
over the 'past 30 years. The figures in Table 1 are
Native students can be achieved.
in thousands of persons.
At the same time, we must recognize that the
Table 2 provides a summary for the 10 states
Native population is aging. Those 0-20 years old
compared in Table 1. We can see that while the
constituted 51 percent of the population in 1950,
Native population is growing in the rural areas at
49 percent in 1970, and just 43 percent in 1980.
a rate of nearly 7,500 per year, growth in the urban
These two trends, a substantial increase in the
areas is nearly double that rate. As recently as the
number of school-age Natives, and an increase in
1970 census, rural areas accounted for more Na-
the average age of the Native population should be
tives in these states. In 1991, the urban areas lead
hicluded in plans for improving Native education.
in Native population, and even by the year 2000,
the rural areas will not have as many Native in-
Distribution of the Native
habiteats as currently dwell in the urban areas [39,
40]. [Note: Numbers in square brackets refer to the
Population
analysis file number in which these detailed
A synopsis of the general Native population
rtsulta may be found].
demography was provided by the 1980 census: 25
A number of problem s are raised by the increas-
percent of American Indians lived or. reservations,
ing distribution of Native students in urban com-
2 percent lived on tribal trust lands, 36 percent
munities. For example, understanding the
lived in other rural areas, and the remaining 37
student's culture, learning style, and special needs
percent lived in urban areas in the United States.
may be more difficult when the number of Native
Based on the trend for more rapid population
students is small compared to the total student
growth in urban areas, we anticipate that the 1990
enrolhnent of a particular school or school district.
and year 2000 censuses will show higher percent-
Because Natives constitute less than one percent
ages of Natives living in ufban areas.
of the U.S. population, a Native student residing
The analysis of current Native demography
in an urban community is often the only Native
should include identification of the largest reser-
student in a class. There may be less than a dozen
vations in terms of population. The Special Report
Native students in the school or even the entire
from the 1980 Census, American Indians, Es-
district. Furthermore, other Native students may
kimos, and Aleuts on identified Reservations and
be from very different, even traditionally hostile,
in the Historic Areas of Oklahoma contains a lige
tribes or groups. In such circumstances, it is easy
ing of about 250 reservations nationwide, listing
for the Native student to feel out of place and for
various serial and economic factors associated wit
the system to fail to meet the student's special
the reservations. Table 4 presents a list of the 10
needs.
most populous reservations in the United States,
drawn from the 1980 special report. Arizona con-
Age Distributions
tains part or all of siz out of the 10 largest reserva-
Dramatic growth has occurred both in the
tions, with the states of South Dakota and New
Native population as a whole, and in the numbers
Mexico also containing more than one. The Navajo
of school-aged Native youth. Table 3, taken from
Nation with over 100,000 residents is clearly the
2
3
Demographics
Hillabrant, Romano, Stang & Charleston
largest reservation, over eight times more
four years of high school was still significantly
populous than Pine Ridge with over 11,000 Og lala
lower than the 6' percent for the tutal U.S. popula-
Sioux residents.
tion. The educational attainment of Alaska Na-
tives was even lower than that of American
The population trends of the 10 states with
largest numbers of American Indians are shown in
Indians: 46 percent of Alaska Natives 25 years or
Table 5. In 1940, Oklahoma had the largeat
older had completed high school in 1980 (Johnson,
American Indian population, with Arizona jading
et al, 19118).
in 1950 and 1960. Oklahoma regained the lead in
Labor Force Participation
1970. And finally, California took first place in
1980. In fact, California hu moved from sixth
The labor force is defined as employed persons
place in 1940, th fifth place in 1950, to fourth place
plus persons actively looking tbr work. The 1980
in 1960, to third place in 1970, and to first place in
census showed that American Indians did not par-
1980 where it will likely remain in the 1990 census,
ticipate in the labor force to the same degree as the
as shown in the projections for 1990 and 2000.
total population: 59 percent of American Indians
These figures also retlent the greater Native
16 years old and over were in the labor force com-
population increase of urban relative to rural
pared to the 62 percent for the total population.
areas. For example, in California the majority of
The situation was even worse for Alaska Native,:
the Native population resides in urban areas.
less than 50 percent of Alaska Natives were in the
While there are more than 500 American In-
labor force in 1980 (Johnson, et al, 1988).
dian tribes and Alaska Native Villages, 10 groups
Poverty Rates
of tribes account for more than half the Native
In 1979, the poverty line was defined by the
population. Enrollment in each tribe is determined
federal government as an income of not more than
by the tribe, and generally involves some degree of
blood quantum and direct descendence from ear-
$7,412 (excluding non-cash benefits such as hous-
lier tribal members. In 1980, only two tribes
ing, food, or medical assistance) for a family of four.
In 1979, 28 percent of American Indians and 25
(Cherokee and Navajo) had more than 100,000
percent of Alaska Natives were below the poverty
members. Note that the Census Bureau combined
data from r number of distinct but culturally-re-
line. In contrast, 12 percent of the total population
was below the poverty line (Johnson, et al, 1988).
lated tribes for most of the categories in Table 6.
Table 7 presents a comparison of the Native and
Tribal enrollment is not lost when members
total populations on a variety of social and
migrate to other locations. However, eligibility for
certain services (e.g., many services from the
eumomic characteristics. Table 7 shows the Native
population to be younger, and to have larger
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and the Indian
families, lower per capita income, more persons
Health Service (INS)) may be unavailable to mem-
below the poverty line, lower proportion of' high
bers living away from the designated service areas.
school graduates, and to have more unemployed
For a few tribes, the right to vote in tribal elections
than the total populations (IHS Trends in Indian
may be denied to members while living away from
Health, 1990).
the reservation or trust lands. The members of a
tribe often reside in many states.
Mortality Rates
Social and Economic
Natives generally die younger than other
Americans. Table 8 shows the top 10 causes of
Characteristics of Native Americans
death for 1-14 year olds (1985-1987). Native
The social, economic, and health problems
children die at higher rates in every case except for
reflected in this section are critical to the success
cancer (malignant neoplasms) and birth defects
of efforts to improve Native education. Somehow,
(congenital abnormalities); the mortality rates are
these efforts must overcome the effects of high
equivalent for meningitis. Similar patterns are
levels of unemployment, poverty, and health
found in the mortality rates of Natives aged 15-24
problems described below.
years.
Educational Attainment
Enrollment Trends
Census data indicate that the educational at-
tainment of American Indians improved sig-
nificantly in the 1970s. In 1980, 56 percent of
K-12 Enrollment
American Indians aged 25 and over had completed
The Native student population is distributed
four years of high school, up from 33 percent in
among three major types of schools for the K-12
1970. Nevertheless, the 56 percent of Natives with
grades: public schools, private schools, and schools
3
4
Indians Nations M Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
administered by the dureau of Indian Affairs
population in the schools is far less than in other
(BIA). There are several other types of school,
states where large numbers of Natives live.
including reservation schools administered locally,
Higher Education
and a few eaperimental or specialty schools. How-
ever, the majority of Native students, 85 percent,
In institutions of higher education, Native stu-
currently attend public schools, with BIA and
dent enrollment has been increasing at a rate of'
private schools still enrolling significant nundril
over 1,100 students per year, about 1.2 percent of
of students.
their current enrollment COM. The total U.S. enroll-
In 1990, the BIA directly operated 102 schoels
ment is increasing at about the same rate: 1.5
and provided funds for 78 contract schooleunder
percent per year (NCES, 1989). OW Sinoe 1976,
the Indian Self-Determination and Education As-
there ha .:. been no change in Native enrollment as
sistance Act (Pub.L 93-838). Since 1970, enroll-
ei percentage of all students enrolled in higher
mint in BIA-operated schools has been decreasing
education, (07) By the year 2000, we project that
while enrollment in Contract schools has been
over 100,000 Native students will be enrolled in
increasing. When these two seta of data are com-
higher education programs (see Table 11)..
bined, the total enrollment for BIA-funded schools
Beginning in 1988, a new era in Native educa-
has been increasing sliently (see Figure 1). It is
tion commenced with the opening of Navikjo Com-
noteworthy that the drAta in Figure 2 (from BIA
first
the
munity
Arizona,
in
College
statistics concerning Indian Education, FY 1952-
tribally-controlled college to grant a 2-year as-
1979) are at variance with other BIA data
sociate degree located on the reservation. Since
presented in Educating the American In-
then, a total of 24 tribally-controlled community
dian/Alaska Maive Family: 16th Annual Report
colleges have been established (all located on reser-
of the National Aduisory Council on Indian Educa-
vations, except for two). These tribally-controlled
tion (NACIE). The BIA data reported by NACIE
colleges are helping Native students preserve their
indicate an average annual decrease of 715 stu-
cultural identity while at the same time embarking
dents in BIA-ffinded schools.
on fields of study which allow them to attain profes-
Figure 2 shows the enrollment trends of Native
sional goals (see Commissioned Paper 18 of the
students in public, private, and BIA-funded
Supplemental Volume).
schools since 1970. It also shows the total enroll-
In 1989, the total enrollment of the tribally-con-
ment of all students. Note that the total student
trol l ed colleges was about 4,400 students
data are in millions, and the rest of the data are in
(American Indian Higher Education Consortium,
thousands.
1990). Figure 3 shows the enrollments in the tribal
Enrollment of Native students in U.S. public
colleges from 1981 to 1989 with projections. We
and private schools has been increasing at a rate
project that in 1990 enrollment will be 4,390, and
of about 7,200 students per year (Table 9). By the
in the year 2000 it will be over 7,500 students. The
year 2000, we project there will bo nearly half a
colleges are concentrated in a few states. Out of the
million Native students enrolled in these schools.
total of24 colleges, seven are in Montana and eigh t
(01)
in the states of North Dakota and South Dakota.
The net effect of this large increase in the public
Many of the larger reservations do not have such
and private schools and small loss in the BIP.
a college. A state with one of the largest popula-
funded schools is an overall increase in the number
tions in the country, Oklahoma, is without a tribal
of Native students, grades K-12. [03] In contrast,
college; California, Arizona, and New Mexico each
total student enrollments in grades K-12 in the
have only one.
United States have been decreasing over the last
Two of the tribal colleges now grant 4-year
10 years. Each year, there is an average of 340,000
degrees: Oglala Lakota and Sinte Gleska. In a list
fewer students in our schools. (04)
of the top 10 4-year colleges in terms of Native
Table 10 shows the enrollment of Native stu-
student enrollment, Oglala Lakota College is
dents (elementary through secondary levels) in
ranked third with 812 Native students, having the
relation to the total student population, for the 10
honor of being the only tribnlly-controlted college
states with the largest Native populations. It is
ranking in the top 10 (Chronicle of Higher Educa-
interesting to note that California, although
tion, April 11, 1990).
having the highest Native population, is not even
A recent tabulation of Native students in thc
among the top 10 states in terms of the percentage
various higher education levels was published in
of Native student enrollment. This means that
the Chronicle of Hik,ther Education, April 11, 1990.
*Moto* California has the largest total popula-
Table 12, adapted from this report, shows data over
tion of' Natives, the density of Native student
4
Demographics
Hillabrant, Romano, Stang & Charleston
the 1978-1988 decade by student gender, type
ministered by local educational agencies, other
institution, and type of program.
public condos and institutions, and private
non-
In the first professional programs, such as
profit organizations. Adult education programs ad-
mini stored by tribes, Native groups and
medicine and law, there has been no increase in
Native student enrollment over the 10 year period.
organizations are often ineligible to receive Adult
On the graduate level, there has been
significant
Education Act !kinds granted * state education
increase, but not nearly enough to keep up !Rh the
agencies because Natives are not included in the
increase in Native population shown in Table 1.
state education plan or Native organisations are
Enrollment of women is consistently greater than
not considered to be a local educational agency.
that of men at all levels.
Figure 5 displays the enrollment of Native stu-
Table 13 shows that the m gjority ofNative (and
dents in adult education programs funded under
Hispanic) students are enrolled at 2-year colleges.
the Adult Education Act from 1985-1988 with
In contrut, the percentages of Asian, Black, and
projections. In 1991, we estimate that over 38,000
Native adults will participate in state-ad-
White students enrolled in 4-year colleges is higher
than that enrolled in 2-year colleges. Figure 4
ministered adult education programs, a number
shows the trend of Native student enrollment in
that is increasing at about 2,000 per year (see
2-year and 4-year colleges for the period 1976-
Table 15). However, little confidence should be
1986.
placed in the forecast for the year 2000 because of
the quality of the data. The growth rate in Native
MAjor Fields of Study
adult education is about five percent per year, as
Table 14 indicates the interest areas and the
compared with a growth of about. one percent per
mejor fields of study of Native college students. In
year for the U.S. population as a whole. [13,14] In
ill fields, Native students earned 0.4 percent of all
terms of absolute numbers, about 2.2 percent of the
Native population will participate in such
Bachelors Degrees, with Native women students
earning slightly more such degrees than Native
programs in 1991, as compared with 1.2 percent of
men students.
the total U.S. population.
3f the major fields of study, the greatest num-
Mother source of funding for Native adult
ber of degrees awarded (to all categories of stu-
education is the Adult Education Program of the
dents) were in business and management, with
Office of Indian Education in the U.S. Department
social science and education ranking second and
of Education. The number of students enrolled in
third, respectively. In the field of education, Native
adult education programs funded under this Office
female students outnumbered Native male gu-
has varied from 1985-1989 (see Figure 5). Overall,
dents by almost three to one. In computer science,
participation is showing signs of decrease. The
y
Native student enrollment is disproportionately
program appears to be losing about 500 students
low. Less than 0.2 percent of the total degrees for
each year, and our estimate for 1991 of 6,038
computer science were granted to Native students.
participants will be dropping to around 1,500 by
the year 2000 if trends continue (Table 16). Par-
Adult Education
ticipation in this program has fluctuated since its
inception in 1985, so the forecast is not particularly
The Adult Education Act, (Public Law 100-297)
trustworthy. [16]
was reauthorized in 1988. This Act is intended to
The BIA provides funds for tribal adult educa-
improve educational opportunities by enabling
tion programs. As with the Office of Indian Educa-
adults to:
tion, Adult Education Program, participation in
acquire basic educational skills necessary
1.
the BIA program is decreasing by nearly 300 ctu-
for literate functioning;
dents a year (see Figure 5). Our estimate of 11,628
2. complete secondrzy school;
participants for 1991 will be dropping to around
9,000 in the year 2000, ifthe trend continues (Table
3. benefit from job training and retraining
16). [19]
programs;
It appears that while overall Native adult
4. obtain productive employment; and
education participation is growing, the DIA and ED
5. more &fly enjoy the benefits and respon-
Native Adult Education programs ars shrinking.
sibilities of citizenship.
Vocational Education
State educational agencies receive adult educa-
tion grants based on the number of adults that
The Department of Educadon provides grants
have not completed secondary school. In turn, the
to states for vocational education programs as
states fund local adult education programs ad-
authorized by the Carl D. Perkins Vocational
5
Indians Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
Education Act. The objectives of this act include
Special Programs
the following.
Between 1978 and 1986, the numiser of Native
Improve and modernize vocational educa-
students attending public elementary and secon-
tion to meet the needs of the workforce;
dary schools in the United States increased from
329,430 to 355,796 students, an increase of eight
Promote economic growth; and
percent. Of these students, 36,973 were placed in
Ensure disadvantaged and handicapped
various special education programs, and ap-
student' have access to quality vocational
proximately 55 percent of this number were placed
education programs.
in classes for the learning disabled (Office of Civil
While trthes and Native organizations May be
Rights: Elementary and Secondary School Civil
eligible to obtain grants administered by the
Rights Survey, 1987).
states, most states do not award grants ta them.
In MA schools, the number of children receiv-
The U.S. Department of Education Indian Voca-
ing special education and related services in-
tional Education Program provides discretionary
creased by 35 percent since 1977, the principal
,
granta to eligible trthes, tribal organizations, and
increase coming from the categories of learning
Aluka Native groups. The Act included a provision
disabled and speech impaired children (Office for
that sets aside 1.25 percent of the appropriated
Civil Rights Survey, 1987). Table 18 presents a
funds for Native programs.
comparison of the percentage of Native and White
Since its inception in 1977, the program has
students in special education in 1986. Native stu-
maintained data on appropriations, total projects,
dents are significantly underrepresented in gifted
and applications for grants received. Table 17
and talented programs and overrepresented in
shows that total appropriations are increasing at
programs for students with learning disabilities.
a rate of about $500,000 per year, with nearly $12
For all school systems in any region and at any
million to be spent in 1991. [20] The total number
level, special education, consistently has the
of projects funded is also increasing, at fewer than
greatest need for qualified teachers and staff'. High
two per year. [21] With an estimated 47 projects
staff turnover and low student achievement are
to be funded in 1991, the average project value is
unfortunately common in these areas. The Native
$250,000. There appears to be only a slight and
population has greater needs for special education
non-significant increase in the rate of grant ap-
professionals than other groups.
about one or two each year. [22]
plications
Roughly 64 applications are projected to be
Standardized Measures of
received in 1991 for an estimated 47 new and
Scholastic Aptitude
centinuation projects.
The BIA administers an Adult Vocation Educa-
There has been a long and continuing debate
tion Program. This program is available to mem-
about the utility, validity and fairness of stand-
bers of federally recognized tribes, 18 to 35 years
ardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test
of age, residing on or near their reservation, trust
(SAT) and the American College Testing Program
lqnd or Native village. The program enrolls ap-
(ACT). Nevertheless, both the ACT and SAT are
proximately 3,000 students each year.
extensively used by American colleges at,. part of
their selection process. We report the travls in
Vocational Rehabilitation
Native scores below.
Vocational rehabilitation generally involves
The ACT
retraining for a new job skill or level to help dis-
abled persons seek employment in a new field. The
Scores from the ACT examination, which cer ars
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA), of
English, math, social studies, and natural sciences,
the U.S. Department of Education, has an Indian
were analyzed for this paper.
Vocational Rehabilitation Program. This program
FigLL re 6 shows the trends in the national scores
provides funds under the Rehabilitation Act of
by ethnic group during the period 1985-1989. With
1973, as amended by Public Law 99-506. In 1990,
the exception ofWhites, all groups showed improv-
RSA funded 14 grants to tribal vocational
ing scores during this period. Whites, who current-
rehabilitation programs. These grants totalled
ly score the highest, are forecast to be surpassed
$3,815,500, and an estimated 4,000 Natives par-
by Puerto Rican/Other Hispanic by the year 2000
ticipated in the vocational rehabilitation
(Table 19). Looking at the rates of improvement in
programs.
the scores, Native students showed the least im-
provement during this time period, except for
Whites (ACT, 1989)423, 24, 25, 26, 27]
6
Demographics
Hillabrant, Romano, Stang & Charleston
Attrition and Dropout
Because ACT scores are available for a series of
years for different ethnic groups by ACT com-
A series of studies have analyzed the prob-
ponent (English, math, social studies, and natural
ability and risk factors of secondary minority stu-
sciences), it is possible to learn a bit more about
dents dropping
of school at certain intervals.
out
where Native students are loin the best, and
The third in a series of longitudinal studies con-
where they are showing th -4 most improvement.
ducted by the National Center for Educational
Our analyses, shown in Table 20, may 1r" sum-
Statistics (NCES), the National Education Lon-
marized by the following points. [28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
gitudinal Study of 1988 (NCES, 1988) commenced
33, 34, 35]
with a large sample of eighth graders. The national
Lae all students, Native students receive
sample of 1,000 schools, including 800 public and
their highest scores in the natural scien-
200 private schools, yielded a group of 26,000
ces, lowest scores in math and social
eighth grade studects.
studies.
In subsequent years, a directed attempt will be
Native students are improving in all four.
made to follow all students classified as dropouts
areas. They are showing the greatest im-
in the original sample. Beginning in 1990, various
provenaent in math scores, which are im-
attribute-specific student subpopulations are
proving at a rate of over one quarter-test
being examined in two year intervals. Table 22
unit each year. The weakest area is social
dePneates factors identified by the study to corre-
studies, which is improving at a rate ofless
late with the probability of a student becoming a
than one-tenth test unit each year. In con-
dropout. Figure 9 shows the dropout rates for some
trast, all students are losing ground in
racial-ethnic groups; Native students have the
math and social studies, and showing
highest dropout rate, almost twice that of White
growth only in English.
students.
For these studies, a student dropout is defined
Despite the gains being made by Native
as an individual enrolled in school at some time
students in all areas, and the general
during the previous school year, was not enrolled
deterioration of the scores of all students,
at the beginning of the current school year, has not
Native students are still far behind. Given
graduated from high school or completed an ap-
the current trends, even by the year 2000,
proved educational program, and is not absent
Native students will still lag substantially
from school due to illness, nor transferred to
behind the current and forecast scores for
another public school district, private school, or
all students. On the average, the Native
other approved educational program. The overall
students score 15.1 on a test where all
dropout rates reported heve (and used as the
students score 18.6. Native performance is
baselines for subsequent comparisons) are only the
only 81 percent that of the performance of
attrition rates between Spring of the sophomore
all students.
year and Spring of the senior year. They should not
be construed as estimates of the total dropout rate
The SAT
from the 1980 sophomore cohort.
The SAT is widely used for selection of students
for nost-secondary programs. Figures 7 and 8 show
Educational Attainment
the great disparity between Native student test
scores and those of the White and total student
We determined Native representation among
populations.
graduates receiving Associate degrees, Bachelor's
Table 21 summarizes the trends of the SAT
degrees, and Doctoral degrees. Figure 10 shows
data. It can be seen that Native students trail the
that the number of Master's degrees awarded to
general population substantially in both math and
Native students has been increasing regularly.
verbal SAT scores. Native student scores are im-
The other degree categories generally show a trend
proving, however, going up a small amount each
for increase over time, but with an occasional
year in verbal, and a greater amount in math,
decrease in the number of degrees awarded. We
where they do best. [41, 42, 43, 44]
project that, in the year 2000, 6,400 Associate,
Native student math aptitude is higher than
6,200 Bachelor's, 1,600 Master's and 100 Doctoral
verbal aptitude on the SAT; in contrast, math
degrees will be awarded to Native students.
aptitude is lower than verbal aptitude scores on the
We also examined the degrees awarded to Na-
ACT as discussed previously.
tive students as a proportion of all degrees
awarded for each type of degree. We estimate that
in 1991-92, 0.66 percent of all U.S. graduates
7
Indians Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
receiving Associates Digress will be Native stu-
Since 1983, the majority of the Bush Founda-
dents, as compared with 0.41 percent of those
tion support for triballycoatrolled colleges has
receiving Bachelor's degrees and .51 percent of
been used for faculty development. Most of these
those receiving Doctoral degrees. We forecast little
colleges are geographically isolated, operating
change by the year 2000, but the trend is for
a
budgets are limited, and opportunities are scarce
decreasing proportion ofNatives earning Associate
for faculty members to attend professional meetp
degrees, and an increasing proportion of Native
ings, engage in graduate study, or improve cur-
earning Bachelor's, and Doctoral degrees.
ricula. Grants for this purpose have generally
[10,11,12] Mile some sources using the same raw
averaged $25,000 annually for each of the eight
numbers conclude that participation in wiry de-
colleges served. During 1989, approximately
gree category decreases as higher levels of educa-
$260,000 was appropriated for faculty develop-
tional attainment are reached [NAME,
sent activities in these colleges (The Bush Foun-
p. 231 we
dation Annual Report for 1989, St. Paul,
trend for Native students to earn Bachelor's
see
rather than Associate degrees (Table 23).
Mineenota).
Currently, there are 24 taally-controlled com-
Funding For Education
munity colleges with most receiving funding
through the 'Itribally Controlled Community Cel-
Over the years, there has been a variety of
lege Assistance Act of 1978, as amended, and other
fimding programs for Native education. Earlier in
foundation or grant sources. Table 24 shows that
this century, the 13IA controlled most reservation
these sources of funding have been drying
up,
schools and was in charge of corresponding finan-
when examined on a per-pupil basis. Each year
cial resources. More recently, there has been a
means the loss of about $110 per student in &rul-
trend for the Department of Education to provide
ing. In 1991, the average per-student ftmding is
greater support. Overall, Native education funding
estimated at only $1,771; by the year 2000 this will
to have been growing since 1975. The
appears
be down to $772 per student, if present bonds
annual expenditures for BIA education, for ex-
continue. [091
ample, show an increase of $2.6 million per year or
Paul Boyer's
narrates the his-
Tribal Colleges
an increase per year of about one percent. How-
;Try and challenging issues which have confronted
ever, rather than applying current dollars over this
the development of the tribal college system
time period, it is certainly more accurate to take
(Boyer, 1989). The report, sponsored by the Car-
inflation into account. When this is done, it be-
negie Foundation, points out that in spite of a
comes evident that BIA education furtd:ng has
budget passed by Congress amounting to over
actually fallen by $11.8 million per year from fiscal
$4,000 per student (Tribally Controlled Com-
year 1975 through fiscal year 1991 (Figure 11).
munity College Act of 1978), only $3,000 per stu-
Figure 11 also shows that the same situation has
dent had actually been appropriated in 1980.
been true of spending on Native education by the
Worse yet, by 1989, after increasing the total
other major funding swency, the Department of
budget considerably, the amount appropriated per
Education (from Survey Report, National Center
student was a mere $1,900.
for Education Statistics,
Federal Support for
Under the Indian Education Act, the U.S.
Fiscal Years 1980 to 1989, August
Education:
Department of Education awards competitive dis-
1990). It is difficult to imagine how significant
cretionary grants to Native tribes, villages, or-
improvements/but be made in Native education if
ganizations, and institutions for adult education.
the trend of decreasing federal expenditures con-
These grants have been increasing at a rate of
tinues.
about $57 per student per year. In 1991, an es-
Private foundations, such as the Bush Founda-
timated $640 will be spent per student, and if
tion in St. Paul, Minnesota, have been helpful in
trends continue, over $1,100 in the year 2000. [17]
funding certain selective educational institutions.
In contrast to this slight growth is a nearly flat rate
The Bush Foundation has concentrated some of its
of expenditure per pupil in the BIA Adult Educa-
$400 million portfolio on the development and en-
tion Program. Here, per-oupil funding is shrinking
hancement of tribal colleges. For example, begin-
at the rate of almost $2 per year (Table 24).(18]
ning in April, 1977 the Bush Foundation made its
For these three funding sources combined, total
first grant of $100,000 to construct a library at the
per-pupil funding is dropping at about $56 per
Sinte Gleska College on the Rosebud Indian Reser-
year, an average decrease of two percent of the
vation in South Dakota. Since that time, the Foun-
total funding available.
dation has granted over $1.5 million to eight fully
The BIA offers a Higher Education Grant Pro-
accredited tribal colleges in the states of Montana,
gram which is another source of funds for Native
North Dakota, and South Dakota.
8
!J
Demographics
Hillabrant. Romano. Stang lit Charleston
studenta. Table 25 summarizes trends in the num-
$25,198 in 1986 and, for private school teachers for
ber served (36), average grant size [37], and num-
the same year, $14,400.
ber of graduates.(38) This program, we estimate,
The general trend has been a slow increase in
will serve over 18,000 students in 1991, and nearly
numbers of Native teachers and faculty, although
500 additional students each year. The average
not nearly approaching a percentage comparable
grant size is quite small relative to the costs of
to the Native population. The state of Oklahoma,
higher education: just under $1,500 a yiesir per
for example, in order to begin to initiate tangible
student, and rather than keeping pace with infla-
improvements in minority faculty hiring, enacted
tion, is shrinking each year.
an incentive grant in 1985 paying up to $25,000 for
a first time employed faculty member in a full-time
Teachers, Administrative, and
teaching position, from a minority racial or ethnic
.
School Personnel
flrouP.
Approximately 471,000 people were employed
A critical attribute in creating a quality educa-
u full-time faculty at college and university levels
tional environment is the teacher. Regrettably, the
in 1983, Whites accounting for 425,691 (over 90
training, recruitment, and retention of teachers,
percent) of faculty positions, with Native full-time
especially in minority schools, is a major problem.
faculty increasing from 1,050 to 1,310 from 1975 to
In reservation schools, and in other rural school
1983, including about 27 percent Native women
areas, new teachers from urban areas often find it
(Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
difficult to remain in a school located far from a city
1983).
and all its resources.
Teacher turnover is especially high in science
A Final Note
and mathematics and, with the Native students in
We believe that good data and analyses are
particular, there seems to be a variety of obstacles
essential if we are
to effective learning (Lawrenz, 1988). Typically in
these situations, students have insufficient sup-
to improve the effectiveness and efficiency
1.
port (such as teaching assistants), and teachers
of the educational process within schools at
become frustrated with inadequate supplies and
all levels for the Native student,
equipment.
to promote and maintain Native cultural
2.
In The Condition of Teaching, a recent survey
and historical identity within educational
of teachers throughout the United States funded
systems,
by the Carnegie Foundation, 96 percent ofteachers
to counsel Native students using current
3.
surveyed spend some of their own money on sup-
information
plies for the classroom, at an average per teacher
to keep government agencies and Congress
cost of $250 for the first half of the 1989-1990 school
4.
year (Boyer, 1990). If such a lack of support exists
aware of the financial and other needs for
throughout the country for classroom equipment,
Native education.
then it is no surprise that Native schools are in
It would be nice to think that by the year 2000,
even more need of such supplies and support.
the Native student will attain a level equal to the
Kathleen Cotton, in a report from the
genera; gtudent population in terms of academic
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, en-
and social achievements. Our analyses suggest
titled Reducing Teacher Turnover in Reservation
this is improbable without massive, and effective
Schools, states, for example, that on the Pine Ridge
restructuring of Native education from pre-school
Reservation in South Dakota, up to 41 percent of
to professional schools.
new teachers leave by the end of the school year
(Cotton, 1987). Cotton suggests that teachers who
References
leave tend to have the following attributes: young,
inexperienced, single, and from urban areas. Lack
American College Testing Program 1989 Yearly
of administrative support, low salaries, and inade-
Report.
quate curriculum development are all significant
Boyer, Paul. (1989). Tribal Colleges. Carnegie
factors in this turnover. A selective teacher recruit-
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
ment program, drawbg on Native teachers (and
Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton University
others with experience in Native culture and tradi-
Press.
tions), is needed. Although figures are not avail-
Bureau of Indian Affairs. (1988). Report on BIA
able for salaries by teacher ethnicity, the average
Excellence in Indian Education
Education:
salary nationwide for public school thachers was
Through the Effective Schools Process: Final