ERIC ED340362: A Report on the Research and Development of Instructional Simulation.

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by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
IR 015 357
ED 340 362
West, Charles K.; And Others
AUTHOR
A Report on the Research and Development of
TITLE
Instructional Simulation.
Defense Systems Management Coll., Fort Belvoir,
SPONS AGENCY
VA.
Jan 91
PUB DATE
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Educational
Computer Simulation; Cost Effectiveness;
DESCRIPTORS
Games; Educational Objectives; Elementary Secondary
Education; *Instructional Design; *Instructional
Effectiveness; Intermode Differences; Interviews;
*Learning Activities; Models; Postsecondary
Education; Program Evaluation; *Research and
Development; *Simulation; Teaching Methods
ABSTRACT
findings
The purpose of this report is to communicate
design, development, and
on current knowledge of simulation
posed by
evaluation. Research on this project was guided by questions
Virginia.
the Defense Systems Management College in Fort Belvoir,
of good
These questions fall into three categories: the constituents
instructional simulations, the design and development of
instructional simulations, and the evaluation and testing of
and
instructional simulations. This work is based on careful review
by
analysis of the literature on the topic, and is supplemented
interviews with developers and users. Highlights of the report
in
include: (1) emphasis on the need for an empirical approach
simulation design; (2) recommended sLt of phases for using
instructional simulations which can serve as an instructional
siNulation users guide to increase learning from simulations;
(3)
comparison of the cost/benefits of simulation compared to other
simulations
instructional methods; (4) instructional effectiveness of
and their fidelity to what is represented; (5) design steps;
(6)
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages Lf task, cognitive, or
(7) overview of
affective analysis dltring simulation design;
conducting
instructional effects research; (8) frame or checklist for
of an instructional
a content analysis to evaluate the potential
simu]ation; and (9) procedures for conducting evaluations of
simulation learning. The appendices contain a paper, "Computers in
Murray); a
Instructional Simulation" (James E. Snellen and Steven L.
samples
116-item bibliography; a copy of the interview form used; and
of interview reports. (57 references) (DB)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Educational Research and Improvement
Office i
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
11 This document has been reproduced as
received horn the proson or organization
originating it
r, Minor changes have been made to improve
reproduction quality
Points ot view or Opinions stared in this docu
' do not necessarily represent official
ilion or policy
A Report on the Research and Development
of Instructional Simulation
Charles K. West,
James Snellen,
Kim Tong,
Steve Murray
all of the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Final report to the Defense Systems Management College
Fort Belvoir, Va.
Task Order 3-90
January 10, 1991
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
CharLes K. West
0.
2
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Table of Contents
2
Executive Summary.
4
Introduction.
I.
4
II. Methods.
6
III. Instructional Methods.
8
A. Related Questions.
9
Simulation.
IV. Constituents )f a "Good" Instructional
9
A. What Are its Fundamental Components9
9
Why Is It Used,'
B. What Is It Designed to Teach (i.e.,
11
Place?
the Required Learning Take
C. Within the Simulation, Where/how Does
12
the Classroom
Guide for Using Instructional Simulation in
1.
19
Learning? The Best Way?
D. What Are the Ways to Measure
13
Teaching/Learning Methods?
Is There Cost/Benefit over Other
E.
14
Designed/Developed9
V. How Are "Good" Simulations
18
A. What Is the Fundamental "Process"?.
18
Fidelity, Metaphor, Modeling and Verisimilitude.
1.
Value
Conditions Which Determine the Instructional
2.
23
of Verisimilitude or Fidelity
the Process?
B. What Are the Discrete Design Steps of
95
Are there Shortcuts? Alternatives9
27
Improvements in Design.
1.
28
Established9
C. How Are the Objectives for the Simulation
D. How Are the Objectives Translated into
99
(Incorporated in) the Learning Vehicle?
99
Evaluation.
VI. Studies of Effects and Implications for
31
Demonstrated?
A. How Is the Achievement of these Objectives
34
"There?"
B. How Do the Designers Know when They Are
35
Implications for Users.
1.
35
Conducting Local Evaluations.
2.
38
"There?"
C. How Do the Students Know when They Are
38
Conclusions.
VII.
40
References
45
Computers in Instructional Simulation
Appendix A.
60
Bibliography
Appendix B.
72
Interview Outline; Credentials of Interviewees
Appendix C.
2
Executive Summary
In this report on the state of the research and development of instructional simulation we have
responded to 12 questions posed by the DSMC staff. These questions are included in three categories:
The constituents of good instructional simulations, the design and development of instructional
simulations, and the evaluation and testing of instructional simulation. Our work is based primarily
on careful review and analysis of the extensive literature on the topic supplemented by interviews
with developers and users.
Highlights of the report are as follows:
Emphasis on the need for a greater empirical approach in simulation
o
design.
Recommended set of phases for using instructional simulations which can
o
serve as an instructional simulation users guide to increase learning from
simulations.
Detailed comparison of the cost/benefits of simulation compared to other
o
methods.
Discussion of the issues relevant to fidelity between the simulation and
o
what is represented.
Conditions which determine the instructional value of veriamilitude or
o
fidelity are enumerated.
Design steps are listed and discussed.
o
Emphasis on task, cognitive, or affective analysis as an early phase of
o
simulation design.
Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of task, cognitive, or
o
affective analysis during simulation e'Aesign.
Overview of instructional effects research.
o
3
Frame or checklist for conducting a content analysis to evaluate the
o
pater tial of an instructional simulation is presented.
Step by step procedure for conducting local empirical evaluations of
o
learning from simulations.
Appendix devoted to special considerations of computers in kistructional
o
simulation.
4
Introduction
knowledge of simulation design
Our purpose is to communicate our findings on current
discuss what currently is seen to constitute
development and evaluation. More specifically, we will
Throughout our research toward this purpose we
good simulation design, development, and practice.
provided by DSMC personnel. These specific questions are
were guided by a set of questions
under three first order headings.
incorporated in the body of this report as second order headings
from the study of other instructional
A study of instructional simulation cannot be isolated
issues must be created in the
mthods. Answers to relevant questions and responses to critical
of
instructional methods and the designing of other types
matrix of comparisons and contrasts of other
the resParch and development literature
In our view some of the problems attendant to
instruction.
of the failure to address similarities of issues
of simulation and instructional simulation are functions
instructional simulation and the failure to
and design strategies between other methods and that of
engage those similarities.
unique issues characteristic of
This '.s not to be taken to mean that we imply that there are not
simulation. The probability is that there are
design of instruction in other methods and instructional
design of
the various methods of instruction and the
some differences which must be honored among
We view instructional design as an
instruction within the rubrics of those instructional methods.
science is deep analysrs of
applied science, albeit an applied social science, and one heart of any
management" of similarities and differences
similarities and differences; and, for best application, "best
are essential.
methods. We follow this
The subsequent sections of this report are, first, a brief repert on our
which will serve as a basis for
with a short overview of instructional methods other than simulation
topical headings: the constituents of
later comparisons and contrasts. This is followed by three major
instructional simulations; and the
good instructional simulations; the design and development of
Following comes the conclusions, references, and
evaluation and testing of instructional simulations.
instructional simulation: (B) an
appendices consisting of (A) a special short paper on computers in
cited in the body of the report);
extensive bibliography of items examined, (many of which were not
and (C) the interview guideline and the credentials of interviewees.
Methods
First, the report is based on
In this report we will record the results of a two dimensional effort.
instructional
simulation literature und to a lesser degree the
an extensive review of the instructional
who develop and
Seccnd, the report is based on interviews of s,Iveral individuals
design literature.
that this two dimensional approach is necessary for the
use instructional simulations. We think
(')
5
perhaps more
of instructional simulation. In this area,
construction of a record displaying the state
knowledge. The extensive
there are at least these two sources of
so than others in instruction,
who not only design and use instructional
literature is, of course, a record of those in the field
impressions in the professional literature.
simulation, but also a record of their findings and
following reference aids: LCS (an on-line computer
Our review of the literature included use of the
and
$ocial Science Citation Index (Citation
reference system); ERIC; INFO TRACK; Educenen_indez
aids, various
In order to search the above reference
Source volumes); and nooks in Print.
the subject search: simulation games in
combinations of the following key terms were used for
simulation
and teaching method; instructional
education; educational games; simulated environment
models, and
teaching, and debriefing, and design, and
(and teaching methods, and study and
and
evaluation); simulation methods; education
techniques, and heuristics, and learning effects, and
microteaching; cognitive task analysis; and affective
simulation methods; synthetic training devices;
associated bibliographies additional searches
After reviewing relevant sources and their
task analysis.
authors or titles cited.
were conducted for specific
who
conducted interviews with individuals
In addition to the literature search and analysis we
routinely in
who for a variety of reasons, do not publish
design and use instructional simulations; but,
considerable
know that these individuals have
the area of instructional simulation. Because we
have allowed. We feel that their
knowledge we have interviewed as many as our resources
plan and
the same sense that there are many who
experiences are valid and important resources in
instructional
the literature on the lecture as an
give great lectures who have not contributed to
that method.
considerable insight into instruction using
method and who could, nevertheless, provide
by the staff at DSMC; but, as we
Throughout our search we were guided by questions posed
incorporated
bound to respond. These we have
progressed, other questions emerged to which we feel
this report.
together, have become the organizer for
into assorted sections. These questions, taken
of the literature. The uses of simulation
In our search we are impressed with the extensiveness
adult;
levels of instruction from elementary to
extend as follows: into most disciplines; into most
simple role playing,
simulation and game types funregimented play,
across several strategies, or
reactions
predetermined roles or action cards, person-computer,
systems games, simulations relying on
into practically all the intended
simulations, and monopoly-type box games (Davis, 1980)1; and
traditional domains of objectives. These three
outcomes or objectives of education in the three
The breadth of this literature makes it
domains are, of course, cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
As an illustration of the variation across
virtually impossible to review and analyze it completely.
Crookall, Greenblat, Coote, Klabbers, and
disciplines, a survey of those disciplines incorporated into
In
management and business.
include language and communication, social issues. and
Watson (1987)
of medicine, health, aeronautics, library
other literature, instructional simulation includes the areas
and information science, military science, and political science.
6
methods. In this introduction we
In our next section we share a brief overview of instructional
implanted within comparisons and
have argued that issues about instructional simulation are best
this review we will haunt this argument. The
contrasts with other methods. Again and again in
framework for comparisons.
following brief section is an overview which should provide the
Insimatignaillethads
have not attempted to
In this section we present an overview of instructional methods. We
abet our discussions of
discuss these in any detail. This list and a few associated issues will
instructional method,
similarities and differences between simulation and other methods. No single
isolation from other methods, nor should any
not even instructional simulation, should be treated in
"traditional," an
be revered as necessarily "innovative" while all others are relegated to
The strengths and weaknesses of
argumentative device so often observed in instructional literature.
together, as do some (see
instructional simulation should not be compared to all other methods
compared to other specific
Sharrock and Watson, 1987, for example). Simulation should rather, be
which comparisons
Figure 1 is a list of other instructional methods to
methods in specific contexts.
will be made during this review.
Figure 1 Instructional Methods
Lecture
Independent reading
Demonstration
Lecture-discussion
Independent study (reading plus overt responding)
One-on-one tutoring or conferences
Small group tutoring or conferences
Dialogue (Socratic)
Cooperative learning (many forms)
Discovery (should read "Constructed" learning)
Case studies
Simulation
Field (or clinical) experience (sometimes called direct experience)
Cognitive apprenticeship
8
It seems that the list is in some
The methods listed are not necessarily indenendent of all others.
ascending (or descending) order, but the description or labeling of that order is tenuous. The
classifications such as those which appear in West, Farmer & Wolff (1991, pps., 253-254) seem
inadequate. Some reasonable classifications exist, but are weak from the standpoint of mutual
exclusion. A taxonomy would probably be impossible, but a classification system may be. Some
possible bases fc,r classifications systems may include:
Independent vs. guided;
Individual vs. group;
Reception vs. construction
(Discovery and reception are dated metaphors for learning.);
Teacher managed vs. student managed;
Passive vs. active
(Not much potential for this. A reader or listener can be as intellectually active as a
participant in an apprenticeship. There are possibilities that learners can be physically
active without being mentally active.);
By objective or learning goal
(On the surface this does not have much appeal as a possibility.);
By level of expertise of student required
(From novice through advanced to expert.);
By instructional control.
Who controls pace? (Tutor as machine or teacher or student?);
By planning/design (Amount before instruction.); and
By cost.
Related Questions
Considering the emphasis which should be placed on comparing the simulation with other
instructional methods, it is important for those involved in the simulation to reflect on a number of
questions. Is instructional simulation mutually exclusive from the other methods listed? With which
issues on other
does it overlap? From which may it be separated? We will not pursue these
methods of instruction in this paper. We have mentioned them, however, for comparison purposes.
We now turn to a discussion of the constituents of a good instructional simulation. There are
several listings 'In the literature, each of which are valid.