ERGONOMICS A SYSTEMS APPROACH Edited by Isabel L. Nunes ERGONOMICS – A SYSTEMS APPROACH Edited by Isabel L. Nunes Ergonomics – A Systems Approach Edited by Isabel L. Nunes Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Martina Blecic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected] Ergonomics – A Systems Approach, Edited by Isabel L. Nunes p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0601-2 Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Assessment and Prevention 1 Isabel L. Nunes and Pamela McCauley Bush Chapter 2 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Discomfort in the Shoulder due to Computer Use 31 Orhan Korhan Chapter 3 Ergonomic Impact of Spinal Loading and Recovery Positions on Intervertebral Disc Health: Strategies for Prevention and Management of Low Back Pain 51 S. Christopher Owens, Dale A. Gerke and Jean-Michel Brismée Chapter 4 A Comparison of Software Tools for Occupational Biomechanics and Ergonomic Research 65 Pamela McCauley Bush, Susan Gaines, Fatina Gammoh and Shanon Wooden Chapter 5 Measurement Instruments for Ergonomics Surveys – Methodological Guidelines 119 Marina Zambon Orpinelli Coluci Chapter 6 Biomechanical Assessment of Lower Limbs Using Support Moment Measure at Walking Worker Assembly Lines 131 Atiya Al-Zuheri, Lee Luong and Ke Xing Chapter 7 Usability of Interfaces 155 Mário Simões-Marques and Isabel L. Nunes Chapter 8 User Experience Design: Beyond User Interface Design and Usability 171 Wei Xu VI Contents Chapter 9 Higher Efficiency in Operations Can Be Achieved with More Focus on the Operator 193 Per Lundmark Chapter 10 Critical Thinking Skills for Intelligence Analysis 209 Douglas H. Harris and V. Alan Spiker Preface Ergonomics, also known as Human Factors, is a recent scientific discipline, curiously with a well‐defined and official date and place of birth, July 12, 1949, in England. However the term Ergonomics, was proposed in 1857, by the Polish philosopher and naturalist Wojciech Jastrzebowski and fell into oblivion for nearly a century. The word Ergonomics results from joining the Greek words ergon meaning ʺworkʺ and nomos meaning ʺnatural lawsʺ, and conveys the concern of understanding the relationships between humans and their work environment. Ergonomics in spite of its short existence, gathers a broad body of knowledge from different disciplines in order to fit the workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of workers. Its main goal is to ensure humans well‐being, health, and safety while maximizing the performance of production systems. Production systems, however, are a complex combination of physical, organisational and psychosocial dimensions. Therefore Ergonomics offers principles and methods to analyse and improve this multitude of interactions. Despite production systems being the main focus of Ergonomics, its intervention extends beyond work systems, to other aspects of our daily lives, like product design, leisure or sport. This book is the result of an InTech initiative to bring together reputable researchers from different countries that could provide an interesting and up‐to‐date overview of different Ergonomic research applications, practices and methodologies. The 10 chapters present the research work of 19 authors from 6 different countries, and they cover the following themes: work related musculoskeletal disorders; methods in Ergonomics; usability and user‐experience design; efficiency in operations, and critical thinking skills. A brief outline of the volume is presented hereafter. Chapter 1 offers an overview on work‐related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD). The recognition that the work may adversely affect health is not new, since musculoskeletal disorders have been diagnosed for many years in the medical field. WMSD are related with repetitive and demanding working conditions and continue to represent one of the biggest problems in industrialized countries. WMSD are a group of inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the locomotion system, which result from occupational risk factors such as repetition, force or awkward posture as well as individual and psychosocial risk factors. This chapter presents WMSD causes, X Preface pathophysiological mechanisms, characterization of the principal disorders and procedures for workplace analysis and design. Chapter 2 presents the risk factors that contribute to musculoskeletal disorders in shoulders resulting from intensive use of computers. The risk factors of musculoskeletal disorders were revealed by assessing and analyzing workplace ergonomics, worker attitudes and experiences on the use of the computer keyboard and mouse. This was followed by an experimental data collection of muscle load, muscle force and muscular fatigue from the shoulder by Surface electromyography to validate and verify the proposed mathematical model. Chapter 3 recognises that the management of low back pain, particularly work related injuries, is very controversial and that many different treatment approaches have been tried, ranging from osteopathic manipulations to work hardening programs. This chapter addresses low back pain reviewing the anatomical, biomechanical, and physiological mechanisms that contribute to the health of the lumbar spine with particular emphasis on the intervertebral disc (IVD); considering the mechanisms that may cause pain and dysfunction in the lumbar spine; and presenting specific strategies for prevention and management of work related low back pain based on the biomechanical and physiological response of the lumbar IVD. Chapter 4 is devoted to the comparison of software tools for occupational biomechanics and ergonomic research. It provides a survey on selected biomechanical software tools and gives a detailed analysis and a comparison of two specialized packages, 3DSSPP and JACK as well as examples of applications where one or the other may be better suited. Chapter 5 presents a description of methodological guidelines used to prepare a new questionnaire or to adapt an existing one. Ergonomic surveys are very important tools to evaluate and identify problems in workplaces (such as industries, hospitals, and laboratories), since strategies to tackle the ergonomic issues can be derived from their results. Therefore, the surveys should be carefully prepared to obtain information in a clear and reliable way. Usually, ergonomic surveys are based on measurement instruments (questionnaires) that are applied to workers on the workplace to collect the necessary information. Chapter 6 discusses the need for dynamic, flexible and reconfigurable assembly systems, which are able to respond adequately to changes in the characteristics and demands of the market. The chapter presents the Walking Worker Assembly Line, in which each worker utilizes various skills and functions by travelling along the manufacturing line to carry out all the required tasks. The authors argue that this flexible manpower line (or flexible assembly line) approach is one of the promising techniques for configuring effective and productive assembly systems, responding well to the challenges of the manufacturing industry. Preface XI Chapter 7 is dedicated to usability. In recent years the knowledge media support migrated from “pen and paper” to computer‐based Information Systems. This evolution introduced some technological, organizational, and methodological changes affecting the demand, workload and stress over the workers, many times in a negative way. Due to this fact usability assumed an increasing importance. This chapter presents an overview of the general principles to observe when a user‐centred design is adopted, provides a summary of methods and tools that are available to support the design and evaluation of products with good usability, and offers examples of guidelines and good practices that can be adopted. Chapter 8 discusses major challenges faced by current user‐centred design practices, proposes a user experience design (UXD) framework to address these challenges, and analyses three case studies to illustrate the UXD approach and formalize the UXD processes. Chapter 9 discusses how human operators are an integral part of automated control systems and using a systematic design approach presents a new control room that is operator‐focused, in order to create a safer and securer environment, contributing to efficiency in operations. Chapter 10 is devoted to critical thinking skills for intelligence analysis, focusing on that aspect of ergonomics research that seeks to understand how people engage in cognitive work and how to develop systems and training that best support that work. A definition and a model of critical thinking are presented. I hope this book will encourage readers, namely academic researchers and company managers interested in Ergonomics and its applications, to pursue the challenge of transforming workplaces into safer and healthier places to work while optimizing the work system performance. I would like to thank InTech for the invitation to be an editor and to Martina Blecic, Publishing Process Manager, for organizing this book. I would also like to thank the authors and other persons who helped and encouraged me to make this book a reality. Isabel L. Nunes, M.S., Ph.D. Centre of Technologies and Systems, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal