Equality, Discrimination and the Law

252 Pages·2022·3.091 MB·English

by  Michael Connolly

Equality,DiscriminationandtheLaw;byMichaelConnolly
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Equality, Discrimination and the Law
When Mr and Mrs James – each aged 61 – went swimming, Mr James was
charged for entry, while Mrs James was admitted free. The reason was that the
localauthorityofferedfreeswimmingtothoseof‘pensionableage’(atthetime,65
for men and 60 for women). The House of Lords found that Mr James had suf-
fered direct sex discrimination. This majority plurality decision indicated that
sometimes a given set of facts does not neatly accord to traditional definitions of
discrimination. This in turn encourages the judiciary to shape the law to fit the
facts, which results in an inconsistent body of law full of ‘fuzzy borders’. Starting
withtheJamescase,thisbookinvestigatesanumberof‘fuzzyborder’casesinthe
EU and UK based on nationality discrimination, notions of indirect discrimina-
tion, pregnancy and sex discrimination, marriage and sexual orientation dis-
crimination,perceiveddiscrimination,andvictimisation.Theargumentconcludes
that fixed notions such as ‘direct and indirect discrimination are mutually exclu-
sive’donotstanduptoscrutinyandthatitmustberecognisedthatthetraditional
conceptsofdiscriminationandvictimisationdonotreflecttherealityofpractice.
This work is essential reading for students, scholars and practitioners in all
EU and English-speaking jurisdictions, particularly post-graduates, Policy/Law-
makers, and those on dedicated equality undergraduate courses.
Michael Connolly is a Reader in Law at the University of Portsmouth, UK,
who specialises in Equality Law. He also serves on the Equality, Diversity and
Inclusion Committee of the Society of Legal Scholars, and the London Man-
agement Committee of the Commonwealth Legal Education Association.

Equality,DiscriminationandtheLaw;byMichaelConnolly
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Equality, Discrimination and
the Law
Michael Connolly
Firstpublished2022
byRoutledge
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©2022MichaelConnolly
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ISBN:978-0-367-85709-7(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-032-03486-7(pbk)
ISBN:978-1-003-18754-7(ebk)
DOI:10.4324/9781003187547
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Equality,DiscriminationandtheLaw;byMichaelConnolly
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Contents
Table of Cases vi
Table of Legislation xvii
About the author xxv
1 Introduction 1
2 Incorporated and cumulative cases: Direct or indirect? 7
3 Discrimination and pregnancy 39
4 The outer margins of indirect discrimination 50
5 Objective justification 80
6 Problems with perceived discrimination 99
7 Sexual orientation, marriage, and discrimination 135
8 Age discrimination and retirement 150
9 Victimisation and the unofficial defences 190
Index 221
Equality,DiscriminationandtheLaw;byMichaelConnolly
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Table of Cases
Australia
Commonwealth of Australia v Hamilton (2000) 63 ALD 641 ...................183n181
Commonwealth v Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission (Bradley) (1999)
95 FCR 218 (Federal Court of Australia) ...............................................183
Canada
Action Travail des Femmes v Canadian National Railway [1987] 1 SCR 1114
66n84, 72n106
British Columbia (Public Service Employee Relations Commission) v BCGEU
(Meiorin) [1999] 3 SCR 3 ........................................................................2n4
British Columbia (Superintendent of Motor Vehicles) v British Columbia (Council of
Human Rights) (Grismer) [1999] 3 SCR 868 ............................................2n4
Brooks v Canada Safeway [1989] 1 SCR 1219 ............................................40n6
McKinney v University of Guelph [1990] 3 SCR 229 151n7, 165, 169n106,
184n185, 185–6, 187–8
R v Oakes [1986] SCR 103 ..................................................................169n106
Syndicat Northcrest v Amselem (2004) 241 DLR (4th) 1 (Sup Ct of Canada) ......
74n119
European Court of Human Rights
Eweida v UK (2013) 57 EHRR 8 ................................................64n74, 74, 77
Redfearn v UK [2013] IRLR 51 .....................................................................75
X v UK (App No 7291/75) (1977) 11 DR 55 .....................................74n119
European Union
Achbita v G4S Secure Solutions NV (Case C-157/15) [2017] IRLR 466; NV
[2017] 3 CMLR 21 .................................................................42n17, 58n42
AlabastervWoolwichplc(CaseC-147/02)[2004]ECRI-3103 .......24n77,41n12,
47n48
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Table of Cases vii
Bilka-Kaufhaus v Weber von Hartz (Case 170/84) [1987] ECR 1607 28n90,
80n1, 83n18, 84, 86, 91, 94, 97n95, 216n140, 216n141
Birds Eye Walls v Roberts (Case C-132/92) [1994] IRLR 29 ............14–15,
17–18, 37
Bougnaoui v Micropole SA (Case C-188/15) [2017] IRLR 447, Opinion of AG
Sharpston ...............................................................................42n17, 112n63
Bressol v Gouvernement de la Communauté Française (Case C-73/08) [2010] 3
CMLR 20, Opinion of AG Sharpston ..2n2, 3n8, 7n2, 20, 21, 22–3, 24,
25n83, 26, 27, 28n88, 29n94, 31n112, 32–3, 34, 35, 38n145, 42n14, 54–5,
60, 66, 140–2
Brown v Rentokil (Case C-399/96) [1998] ICR 790 ..........23n74, 41n9, 46n43
Brunnhofer v Bank der Ústerreichischen Postsparkasse (Case C-381/99) [2001] ECR
I- 496, [2001] IRLR 571 ....................................................................18n46
Chacon Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA (Case C-13/05) [2006] 3 CMLR 1123.
.............................................................................................118n91, 119n95
CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria AD v Komisia za zashtita ot diskriminatsia (Case C-
83/14) [2016] CMLR 14.................................................................... 57n33
Coleman v Attridge Law (Case C-303/06) [2008] 3 CMLR 27 ....102, 105n31,
129n142
Commission v Austria (Case C-147/03) [2006] ECR I-5969, Opinion of AG
Jacobs ....................................................................................................29–30
Commission v Belgium (Case C-65/03) [2004] ECR I-6427 ................28–9, 30
Commission v Ireland (Case C-61/77) [1978] ECR 417 ...........................86n39
Coote v Granada (Case C-185/97) [1998] ECR-I 5199............ 199n36, 207–8,
209, 213n125
Dekker v Stichting Vormingscentrum voor Jonge Volwassen (VJV-Centrum) Plus (Case
C-177/88) [1990] ECR I-3941 ......................19–20, 23, 25, 40–7, 112n64
De Weerd v Bestuur van de Bedrijfsvereniging voor de Gezondheit, Geestelijke en
Maatschappelijke Belangen (Case C-343/92) [1994] ECR I-571 ...............170
Édukövízig and Hochtief Solutions (Case C-218/11) ECLI:EU:C:2012:643 ........
86n39
Enderby v Frenchay Health Authority (Case C-127/92) [1994] ICR 112 ........
81n5, 88–9, 95, 97, 181n171, 187n201
Feryn (Case C-54/07) [2008] ECR I-05187 ...................................... 132n151
Fuchs v Land Hessen (Cases C-159/10 and C-160/10) [2011] 3 CMLR 1299....
160, 161n59, 161n64, 162n66, 166n92, 168n103
Georgiev v Tehnicheski universitet – Sofia, filial Plovdiv (Joined cases C-250/09 and
C-268/09) [2011] 2 CMLR 7 ........................................160, 178, 185n190
Gillespie v Northern Health and Social Services Board (Case C-342/93) [1996] ICR
498 .............................................................................. 24n76, 40n11, 46n44
Grant v South-West Trains (Case C-249/96) [1998] ECR I-621 ...........142n33
Gravier v City of Liege (Case Case 293/83) [1985] 3 CMLR 1 .......... 18, 27–8
Hasselblad (GB) Ltd v Commission (Case C-86/82) Opinion of AG Slynn ECLI:
EU:C:1983:204 ...................................................................................86n39
Henn and Darby (Case 34/79) [1979] ECR 3795 ................................... 11n17
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viii Table of Cases
Hennigs (Joined Cases C-297/10 & C-298/10) [2012] 1 CMLR 18 ..........160
HK Danmark v Dansk almennyttigt Boligselskab (Ring) (Case C-335/11) [2013] 3
CMLR 21.......................................................................................... 118n91
HlozekvRocheAustriaGesellschaftmbH(CaseC19/02)[2004]ECRI-11491 .......
16n35,17,18,37
Hörnfeldt v Meddelande (Case C-141/11) [2012] 3 CMLR 37 ...............166n92
Hütter v Technische Universität Graz (Case C-88/08) [2009] All ER (EC) 1129
… 160, 162n69
Ingeniørforeningen i Danmark (C-499/08) [2011] 1 CMLR 1140 .................160
Jenkins v Kingsgate (Case 96/80) [1981] 1 WLR 972 ...............28n90, 29n101,
216n141
Jorgensen v Foreningen af Speciallaeger (Case C-226/98) [2000] ECR I-2447 ......
170n108
Kalliri (Case C-409/16) [2018] 2 CMLR 1 ................................................182
Kucukdevici v Swedex GmbH (Case C-555/07) [2010] 2 CMLR 33 ...........160,
162n68
Mangold v Helm (Case C-144/04) [2006] 1 CMLR 1132 ...........................160
Micheli v Commission (Joined Cases 198–202/81) [1982] ECR 4145....... 28n90
O’Flynn v Chief Adjudication Officer (Case C237/94) [1996] ECR I-2617 ........
63n72
Palacios de la Villa v Cortefiel Servicios SA (Case C-411/05) [2007] IRLR 989 …
151n8, 160, 162n67, 168, 177–8, 185
Petersen (Case C-341/08) [2010] IRLR 254 … 152n12, 160, 168, 173, 174,
175, 176, 177–8, 182, 183
Prigge v Deutsche Lufthansa AG (Case 447/09) [2011] IRLR 1052 .........175–6,
182, 183
R (Bidar) v Ealing LBC (Case C-209/03) [2005] ECR I-2119 ................30–2,
31n111, 33, 36n138
R (The Incorporated Trustees of the National Council on Ageing (Age Concern Eng-
land) v Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (Case
C‑388/07) [2009] ECR I-1569 ......153–5, 158n44, 166n93, 170n107, 174
R v Secretary of State for Employment, ex parte Seymour-Smith (Case C-167/97)
[1999] ECR I-623 .........................................................................64, 69, 96
Rinke v Ärztekammer Hamburg (Case C-25/02) [2003] ECR I-8349........94n82
Rosenbladt v Ollerking Gebaudereinigungsges.mbH (Case C-45/09) [2011] 1
CMLR 32...........................................160, 166n92, 168, 178, 185n191, 186
Schnorbus v Land Hessen (Case C-79/99) [2000] ECR I-10997, Opinion of AG
Jacobs ........................2n3, 3n7, 19–20, 22–23, 45n35, 54–5, 60, 66, 140–2
Schönheit v Stadt Frankfurt am Main (Joined Cases C-4/02 and C-5/02) [2004]
IRLR 983; [2006] CMLR 51................................... 85n24, 95n88, 158n49
Re Shopping Centres Licensing: Commission v Spain (C-400/08) [2011] 2 CMLR
50, Opinion of AG Sharpston ...........................................................205n87
Sorondo (Case C-285/15) [2018] ICR 302 ...........................................183n179
The State v Lynne Watson (Case 118/75) [1976] 2 CMLR 552............... 28n90
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Table of Cases ix
Test Claimants in the Thin Capitalisation Group Litigation v Commissioners of Inland
Revenue (Case C-524/04) Opinion of AG Geelhoed ECLI:EU:C:2006:436
............................................................................................................ 86n39
Trojani v Centre public d’aide sociale de Bruxelles (Case C-456/02) [2004] ECR
I-7573..............................................................................................36n139
Wolf v Stadt Frankfurt am Main (Case C-229/08) [2010] IRLR 244 ..........175,
176, 182
Ireland
Matterof Article26oftheConstitutionof IrelandandinthematteroftheIrishEquality
Bill, Re 1996 [1997] ELR 132 (Supreme Court 118/97) ...................150n1
United Kingdom
Age UK, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and
Skills [2009] IRLR 1017; [2010] ICR 260 (HC Admin) … 154n21, 155,
158n44, 161, 163n76, 165, 166n93, 170n107, 174, 177, 179n162
Air Products plc v Cockram [2018] EWCA 346 .............................................163
Alabaster v Barclays Bank (No 2) [2005] EWCA 508 ......24n77, 24n78, 41n12,
42n13
Allen v GMB [2008] EWCA Civ 810 ...............................................93, 97n97
Allonby v Accrington and Rossendale College [2001] ICR 1189 (CA)...... 29n101,
52n9, 87n46, 93n75, 97n96
Amnesty International v Ahmed [2009] IRLR 884 (EAT) ..........104n25, 145n51
Apelogun-Gabriels v Lambeth LBC [2002] ICR 713 (CA) .......................197n28
Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corporation [1948] 1 KB 223
(CA)............................................................................................3n9, 97n100
Ayodele v Citylink [2017] EWCA Civ 1913 ..........................................116n80
Aziz v Trinity Street Taxis Ltd [1989] QB 463 (CA) ..............193n3, 199–200,
212n12
Azmi v Kirklees MDC [2007] ICR 1154 (EAT) ..........58n43, 107n41, 112n63
Balakumar v Imperial College of Health Care NHS Trust 220 1372/15 (ET
(London Central) 22 January 2016) .................................................127n129
Banks v The Commissioners for Her Majesty’s Revenue & Customs [2020] UKUT
0101 (TCC)..........................................................................................26n85
Barry v Midland Bank [1999] ICR 859 (HL) ............86, 89–90, 93n75, 94n80,
95, 97
Berry v Recruitment Revolution (EAT, 6 October 2010) .........................132n151
Bird v Sylvester [2008] ICR 208 (CA).................................................... 201n52
Black v Wilkinson [2013] EWCA Civ 820 ...................................................143
Bodha v Hampshire AHA [1982] ICR 200 (EAT) .................................219n154
Bohon-Mitchell v Common Professional Examination Board [1978] IRLR 525 (IT)
................................................................................................................87–8
Botham v Ministry of Defence [2012] 2 AC 22 (SC) ................................166n91