Environmentally Conscious Transportation

356 Pages·2008·7.766 MB·English

Environmentally Conscious
Transportation
Environmentally Conscious Transportation. Edited by Myer Kutz
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Environmentally Conscious
Transportation
Edited by
Myer Kutz
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Environmentallyconscioustransportation/ editedbyMyer Kutz.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index.
ISBN978-0-471-79369-4(cloth)
1. Transportation—Environmentalaspects. 2. Transportation—Social
aspects. 3. Sustainableengineering. I.Kutz,Myer.
HE147.65.E5852008
388(cid:1).049—dc22
2007029089
PrintedintheUnitedStatesof America
109 87 65 43 21
To Noreen, Diane and Chris, and Liz and Richard
Contents
Contributors ix
Preface xi
1 The Economic and Environmental Footprints of Transportation 1
LesterB.LaveandW.MichaelGriffin
2 Public Transportation and the Environment 15
MichaelD.Meyer
3 Transportation and Air Quality 47
MohanM.Venigalla
4 The Social Cost of Motor Vehicle Use in the United States 57
MarkA.Delucchi
5 Traffic Congestion Management 97
NaguiM.Rouphail
6 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Design and Performance 129
AndrewBurke
7 Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 191
AminMohagheghMotlagh, MohammadAbuhaiba, MohammadH.Elahinia,
andWalterW.Olson
8 Biofuels for Transportation 213
AaronSmith,CesarGranda,andMarkHoltzapple
9 Life-Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Sustainable Transportation
Infrastructure Management 257
GerardoW.Flintsch
10 Pavement and Bridge Management and Maintenance 283
SueMcNeil
11 Impacts of the Aviation Sector on the Environment 301
VictoriaWilliams
Index 331
vii
Contributors
Mohammad Abuhaiba Lester B. Lave
The University of Toledo Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Toledo, Ohio
Sue McNeil
Andrew Burke
University of Delaware
University of California, Davis
Newark, Delaware
Davis, California
Michael D. Meyer
Mark A. Delucchi Georgia Institute of Technology
University of California, Davis Atlanta, Georgia
Davis, California
Amin Mohaghegh Motlagh
Mohammad H. Elahinia The University of Toledo
Toledo, Ohio
The University of Toledo
Toledo, Ohio
Walter W. Olson
The University of Toledo
Gerardo W. Flintsch
Toledo, Ohio
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Nagui M. Rouphail
Blacksburg, Virginia North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina
Cesar Granda
Texas A&M University Aaron Smith
College Station, Texas Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
W. Michael Griffin
Mohan M. Venigalla
Carnegie Mellon University
George Mason University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Fairfax, Virginia
Mark Holtzapple
Victoria Williams
Texas A&M University Imperial College
College Station, Texas London, United Kingdom
ix
Preface
ManyreaderswillapproachthevolumesintheWileySeriesinEnvironmentally
ConsciousEngineeringwithsomedegreeoffamiliaritywith,knowledgeabout,or
evenexpertisein,oneormoreofarangeofenvironmentalissues,suchasclimate
change, pollution, and waste. Such capabilities may be useful for readers of this
series,buttheyaren’tstrictlynecessary,forthepurposeofthisseriesisnottohelp
engineeringpractitionersandmanagersdealwiththeeffects ofman-inducedenvi-
ronmentalchange.Norisittoargueaboutwhethersucheffectsdegradetheenviron-
mentonlymarginallyortosuchanextentthatcivilizationasweknowitisinperil,or
thatanyeffectsarenothingmorethanascientific-establishment-and-media-driven
hoaxandcanbesafelyignored.(Authorsofaplethoraofbooks,evenincludingfic-
tion,andanendlesslistofarticlesinscientificandtechnicaljournals,haveweighed
inonthesematters,ofcourse.)Ontheotherhand,thisseriesofengineeringbooks
does take as a given that the overwhelming majority in the scientific community
is correct, and that the future of civilization depends on minimizing environmen-
tal damage from industrial, as well as personal, activities. At the same time, the
series does not advocate solutions that emphasize only curtailing or cutting back
ontheseactivities.Instead,itspurposeistoexhortandenableengineeringpracti-
tionersandmanagerstoreduceenvironmentalimpacts—toengage,inotherwords,
inenvironmentallyconsciousengineering,acatalogofpracticaltechnologiesand
techniques that can improve or modify just about anything engineers do, whether
theyareinvolvedindesigningsomething,makingsomething,obtainingormanu-
facturingmaterialsandchemicalswithwhichtomakesomething,generatingpower,
ortransportingpeopleandfreight.
Increasingly, engineering practitioners and managers need to know how to
respond to challenges of integrating environmentally conscious technologies,
techniques, strategies, and objectives into their daily work, and, thereby, find
opportunities to lower costs and increase profits while managing to limit envi-
ronmental impacts. Engineering practitioners and managers also increasingly
face challenges in complying with changing environmental laws. So companies
seeking a competitive advantage and better bottom lines are employing environ-
mentally responsible practices to meet the demands of their stakeholders, who
now include not only owners and stockholders, but also customers, regulators,
employees, and the larger, even worldwide community.
Engineering professionals need references that go far beyond traditional
primers that cover only regulatory compliance. They need integrated approaches
xi
xii Preface
centered on innovative methods and trends in design, manufacturing, power gen-
eration, transportation, and materials handling that help them focus on using
environmentally friendly processes. They need resources that help them partic-
ipate in strategies for designing environmentally responsible products, methods,
andprocesses—resourcesthatprovideafoundationforunderstandingandimple-
menting principles of environmentally conscious engineering.
Tohelpengineeringpractitionersandmanagersmeettheseneeds,Ienvisioned
a flexibly connected series of edited books, each devoted to a broad topic under
the umbrella of environmentally conscious engineering. The series started with
three volumes that are closely linked—environmentally conscious mechanical
design,environmentallyconsciousmanufacturing,andenvironmentallyconscious
materials and chemicals processing. The series has continued with another set
of linked volumes—a volume on environmentally conscious alternative energy
production and this volume on environmentally conscious transportation. Two
other volumes in this second linked set are in the works—environmentally con-
scious materials handling and environmentally conscious conventional energy
production.
The intended audience for the series is practicing engineers and upper-level
students in a number of areas—mechanical, chemical, industrial, manufacturing,
plant,environmental,civil,andtransportation—aswellasengineeringmanagers.
This audience is broad and multidisciplinary. Some of the practitioners who
make up this audience are concerned with design, some with manufacturing and
processing, some with the everyday aspects of energy production and moving
people and goods, and others with economics and setting and implementing
corporate and public policies. These practitioners work in a wide variety of
organizations, including institutions of higher learning, design, manufacturing,
and consulting firms, as well as federal, state and local government agencies. So
what made sense in my mind was a series of relatively short books, rather than
a single, enormous book, even though the topics in each of the smaller volumes
have linkages and some of the topics might be suitably contained in more than
one freestanding volume. In this way, each volume is targeted at a particular
segment of the broader audience. At the same time, a linked series is appropriate
becauseeverypractitioner,researcher,andbureaucratcan’tbeanexpertonevery
topic, especially in so broad and multidisciplinary a field, and may need to read
anauthoritativesummaryonaprofessional level ofasubject thatheor sheisnot
intimately familiar with but may need to know about for a number of different
reasons.
The Wiley Series in Environmentally Conscious Engineering is composed
of practical references for engineers who are seeking to answer a question, solve
a problem, reduce a cost, or improve a system or facility. These books are not
research monographs. The purpose is to show readers what options are available
in a particular situation and which option they might choose to solve problems
at hand. I want these books to serve as a source of practical advice to readers.
Preface xiii
I would like them to be the first information resource a practicing engineer
reaches for when faced with a new problem or opportunity—a place to turn to
even before turning to other print sources, even any officially sanctioned ones,
or to sites on the Internet. So the books have to be more than references or
collections of background readings. In each chapter, readers should feel that they
are in the hands of an experienced consultant who is providing sensible advice
that can lead to beneficial action and results.
The fifth volume in the series, Environmentally Conscious Transportation,
is an important reference for environmental, civil, transportation, mechanical,
and industrial engineers, as well as public policy planners and officials. This
book examines the societal costs of transportation in their broadest sense, both
environmental and economic. The book’s contributors discuss a wide range of
transportationmodes,fromprivateautomobiles,withaseparatechapteronbiofu-
els,toheavytrucksandbuses,torailandpublictransportationsystems,toaircraft.
This book also focuses on pollution from both ground vehicles and aircraft, traf-
fic congestion management, and transportation infrastructure management, with
special attention paid to life-cycle assessment (LCA).
I asked thecontributors, located inthe UnitedStatesand theUnited Kingdom,
to provide short statements about the contents of their chapters and why the
chapters are important. Here are their responses:
LesterB.Lave(CarnegieMellonUniversityinPittsburgh,Pennsylvania),who,
together with Michael Griffin, contributed Chapter 1, The Economic and Envi-
ronmental Footprints of Transportation, writes, “This chapter explores the
marvelous achievement of modern passenger and freight transport systems. We
are reliably transported halfway around the world in less than a day for hun-
dreds of dollars and enjoy fresh fruit delivered from half a world away for a
few cents. Technology advances and market competition have produced a $500
billion per year industry (5% of GDP) that employs three million workers. The
market competition does not deal with the externalities of these systems, such as
the social costs of imported oil for fuel, associated carbon dioxide emissions, air
and water pollution, and injuries and deaths. Transportation consumes 7 percent
of the 100 quadrillion Btus used by the U.S. economy, consuming a much larger
proportion of total petroleum. We quantify the direct resource use and effects, as
well as the full life cycle (extraction to disposal) of the transport systems. The
total externalities of the sector were $118 billion in 2000, 23 percent of the total
revenue of the sector. On a life-cycle basis, externalities are only 13 percent of
total revenue, since transportation has larger externalities than the systems that
support it.”
Michael D. Meyer (Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta), who con-
tributed Chapter 2, Public Transportation and the Environment, writes, “Pub-
lic transit systems are often viewed as one of the most important strategies for
minimizing environmental impacts from transportation systems. By providing an
alternative to the use of the automobile, transit services can reduce the overall
xiv Preface
level of vehicle-related emissions in a metropolitan area. Over the long term,
effective transit services can also influence where businesses and households
locate in a metropolitan area. Thus, it is not surprising that in many developed
countries, land-use policies go hand-in-hand with transit investment. At the indi-
vidual station level, incentives to encourage transit-oriented development have
become a prerequisite to successful land developments.
“This chapter examines the linkage between public transportation systems and
environmental impacts. This relationship relates not only to the potential sub-
stitution of transit mobility for that based on private auto use, but also to the
environmental impacts that occur when transit infrastructure is built. In addition,
transit operations can create environmental impacts as well, such as, noise, air
emissions,waterqualityimpacts,andvibrations.Mitigatingtheimpactsofguide-
way or station construction and transit operations is necessary, but not the sole
component of a true environmentally conscious transit program. As described in
thischapter,environmentallyconscioustransitshouldbelinkedstronglytourban
design, community development, and management of the daily operations of the
transit agency. By so doing, public transit can become a major contributor to the
much broader goal of developing sustainable communities.”
MohanM.Venigalla(GeorgeMasonUniversityinFairfax,Virginia),whocon-
tributed Chapter 3, Transportation and Air Quality, writes, “Transportation
sources contribute heavily to the poor quality of ambient air. Presented in this
chapterarediscussionsonNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS),air
qualitydesignationsandthebasisforthosedesignations.Thischapteralsopresents
anoverviewoftheairqualitymanagement,withspecificemphasisonmanagingthe
contributionfromthetransportationsources.Strategiesoutlinedincludeemission
control at thesource(vehicle), fuel andtransportation planning levels.”
Mark A. Delucchi (University of California, Davis), who contributed
Chapter 4, The Social Cost of Motor Vehicle Use in the United States, writes,
“The social cost of motor vehicle use includes all of the public, private, environ-
mental, and energy costs of using motor vehicles. Analyses of the social cost of
motor vehicle use usually excite considerable interest, if only because nearly all
of us use motor vehicles. Researchers have performed social-cost analyses for a
varietyreasons,andhaveusedtheminavarietyofways,tosupport awiderange
ofpolicypositions.Someresearchershaveusedsocial-costanalysestoarguethat
motor vehicles and gasoline are terrifically underpriced, while others have used
them to downplay the need for drastic policy intervention in the transportation
sector.
“My colleagues at the University of California and I have done a detailed
analysis of some of the costs of motor vehicle use in the United States. We
explainthepurposeofestimatingthetotalsocialcostofmotorvehicleuse,briefly
reviewsomeofthepertinentresearch,explaintheconceptualframeworkandcost
classification, and present and discuss their cost estimates. We emphasize that
whilesocial-costanalysiscanhelpanalyzethecostsandbenefitsoftransportation