Environmental technology in the oil industry

408 Pages·21.358 MB·English

by  Orszulik, Stefan T(Editor)

Environmental Technology in the Oil Industry
Environmental Technology
in the Oil Industry
2nd Edition
Edited by
Stefan T. Orszulik
Oxoid Ltd,
Hampshire, U.K.
Stefan T. Orszulik
Oxoid Ltd,
Hampshire, U.K.
ISBN 978-1-4020-5471-6 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-5472-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2007940833
© 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V.
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
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Printed on acid-free paper.
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Contents
1. General Introduction 1
A. Ahnell and H. O’Leary
1. Environmental technology 1
2. The beginning 1
3. The environmental effects of the oil industry 2
3.1. Air emissions 2
3.2. Water management 5
3.3. Waste management 7
4. Technology used in the oil industry 10
4.1. Pollution control 10
4.2. Pollution prevention 12
5. Oil Industry future: design for the environment 13
5.1. Design out the production problems 13
6. Summary 15
References 15
2. Environmental Control Technology for Oilfi eld Processes 17
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction 17
2. Environmental control technology 20
3. Evolution of environmentally controlled oilfi eld processes 21
3.1. Scope and characteristics of oilfi eld ECT 23
3.2. Methodology of ECT design 25
4. ECT analysis of drilling process 28
4.1. Mechanisms of drilling waste discharge 28
4.2. Sources of drilling waste toxicity 36
4.3. Waste generation mechanisms in petroleum production 38
4.4. Sources of toxicity in produced water 42
References 48
v
vi Contents
3. Environmental Control of Well Integrity 53
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction 53
2. Mechanism of cement seal failures 53
3. Improved cementing for annular integrity 56
4. Cement pulsation after placement 57
5. Integrity of injection wells 60
6. Measurements of well integrity 63
7. Sustained casinghead pressure 65
7.1. Rig methods for SCP isolation 66
7.2. Rig-less technology for SCP isolation 68
References 71
4. Environmental Control of Drilling Fluids and Produced Water 77
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Control of drilling fl uid volume 77
1.1. Control of mud dispersibility 77
1.2. Improved solids-control–closed-loop systems 79
1.3. Dewatering of drilling fl uids: ‘dry’ drilling location 82
2. Control of drilling fl uid toxicity 85
2.1. Drilling fl uid toxicity testing 85
2.2. Low-toxicity substitutes 87
2.3. Synthetic base drilling fl uids 88
2.4. Source separation – drill cuttings de-oiling 90
3. Control of produced water volume 93
3.1. Source reduction – water shut-off technology 94
3.2. Source separation–downhole oil/gas/water separation 96
3.3. Source reduction with downhole water sink 99
4. Control of produced water pollutants 103
4.1. Oil-free water from DWS drainage-production systems 104
4.2. Deoiling of produced water 107
4.3. Removal of dissolved organics from produced water 111
4.4. Produced water salinity reduction 112
References 113
5. Oilfield Waste Disposal Control 123
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction 123
2. Oilfi eld waste disposal to land 124
2.1. Impact of oilfi eld pit contaminants 124
2.2. Oilfi eld pit sampling and evaluation 126
2.3. Oilfi eld pit closure: liquid phase 127
2.4. Oilfi eld pit closure: solid phase 127
Contents vii
3. Subsurface waste disposal to wells 129
3.1. Description of slurry injection process of muds and cuttings 133
3.2. Slurry fracture injection of muds and cuttings 139
3.3. Properties of injected slurries 144
3.4. Environmental implications of subsurface slurry injection 145
3.5. Periodic injection to multiple fractures 147
References 151
6. Drilling and Production Discharges in the Marine Environment 155
A.B. Doyle, S.S.R. Pappworth, and D.D. Caudle
1. Introduction 155
2. Nature of offshore discharges 157
2.1. Produced water 157
2.2. Drilling waste 158
2.3. Magnitude of waste discharges 160
2.4. Accidental discharges 161
2.5. Wastes that require handling during site abandonment 164
3. Potential impacts on the environment 165
3.1. Introduction 165
3.2. Potential impacts from produced water 166
3.3. Potential impacts from drilling waste 167
3.4. Potential impacts from treating chemicals 168
3.5. Potential impacts from accidental discharges 168
4. Regulatory approaches 170
4.1. Regulations for waste discharges 170
4.2. OSPAR agreements and national regulations
for the OSPAR area 171
4.3. United states regulations 172
4.4. Comparing and contrasting OSPAR
and United States EPA regulations 174
4.5. Russian and former Soviet Republics regulations 175
4.6. Other regulatory systems 175
4.7. Accidental discharges 175
5. Should the release be re-mediated? 184
6. Sources of data on discharges to the marine environment 185
References 186
7. Decommissioning of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations 189
M.D. Day
1. Introduction 189
2. Legal framework of platform decommissioning 190
3. Planning 195
4. Abandonment phases 195
viii Contents
4.1. Well abandonment 196
4.2. Preabandonment surveys/data gathering 196
4.3. Engineering 197
4.4. Decommissioning 199
4.5. Structure removal 201
4.6. Disposal 209
4.7. Site clearance 211
5. Conclusion 212
References 212
8. Tanker Design: Recent Developments
from an Environmental Perspective 215
G. Peet
1. Introduction 215
2. Tanker accidents 216
3. Tanker design 219
4. New tanker design standards: the USA takes the lead 220
5. New tanker designs: the international debate in the early 1990s 221
6. Some developments since the adoption of the new MARPOL
regulations in 1992 225
7. Some observations regarding the effectiveness of MARPOL’s
double hull requirements 226
8. Epilogue 227
References 228
9. Pipeline Technology 229
A.A. Ryder and S.C. Rapson
1. Introduction 229
2. Environmental pressures 231
3. Onshore pipelines 232
3.1. Design 233
3.2. Construction 237
3.3. Operation 250
3.4. Decommissioning 256
4. Offshore pipelines 256
4.1. Design 256
4.2. Construction 258
4.3. Operation 265
4.4. Decommissioning 267
5. Pipeline landfalls 267
5.1. Design 268
5.2. Construction 270
References 279
Contents ix
10. Environmental Management and Technology in Oil Refi neries 281
H. Amiry, H. Sutherland, E. Martin, and P. Goodsell
1. Function of an oil refi nery 281
2. Overview 282
3. Control of atmospheric emissions 283
3.1. Minimizing combustion-related emissions 284
3.2. Minimizing fl are-related emissions 289
3.3. Minimizing fugitive emissions 289
3.4. Odour control 292
3.5. Sulphur removal and recovery 293
4. Control of aqueous emissions 295
4.1. Source control 296
4.2. Effl uent treatment 298
5. Soil and groundwater protection 301
5.1. Source control 301
5.2. Monitoring 302
5.3. Remediation 303
5.4. Preventive techniques 303
6. Control of solid wastes 304
6.1. Source control 304
6.2. Waste treatment 306
6.3. Waste disposal 308
7. Recycling to minimize waste 311
7.1. Reuse on-site 311
7.2. Off-site recycling 311
8. Environmental management 312
8.1. Environmental control 312
8.2. Environmental training 313
8.3. Environmental auditing 314
References 314
11. Distribution, Marketing and Use of Petroleum Fuels 315
T. Coley and J. Price
1. Introduction 315
2. Main refi nery product types 315
3. Protection of the environment 317
3.1. The atmosphere 317
3.2. Sea waters: compliance with maritime regulations 319
3.3. Soil and groundwater 319
4. Distributing the products 320
4.1. Distribution systems 320
5. Anti-pollution controls 322
5.1. The atmosphere 322
x Contents
5.2. The high seas 322
5.3. Coastal and inland waterways 324
5.4. Soil and groundwater 325
6. Marketing the products 327
6.1. Large industrial customer installations 327
6.2. Small industrial and domestic customers 328
6.3. Service stations 328
7. Environmental technologies related to product use 329
7.1. Fuels 329
7.2. Marine diesel engines and fuels 329
7.3. Fuels for large industrial power plants 332
7.4. Fuels for small industrial and domestic installations 332
7.5. Aircraft engines and fuels 334
7.6. Engines for rail transport 335
7.7. Automotive engines 335
7.8. Into the next millenium 347
Further reading 347
12. Lubricants 351
C.I. Betton
1. Introduction 351
2. Performance 353
3. Components 353
4. Base fl uids 354
5. Mineral oils 354
6. Synthetic base oils 356
6.1. Polyol esters 356
6.2. Poly-α-olefi ns 356
7. Hydrocracked mineral oils 357
8. Additives 357
9. Actual environmental effects 358
10. Biodegradability 359
10.1. Biodegradation is not necessary in a lubricant 360
10.2. A biodegradable lubricant will encourage
dumping at the expense of collection and disposal 360
10.3. A biodegradable lubricant will degrade in the engine 360
10.4. A biodegradable lubricant will result
in high concentrations of toxic residues
that are detrimental to the environment 361
10.5. Biodegradation is not necessary,
as motor manufacturers are now producing
sealed lubricant systems 361
11. Collection and recycling of used oils 361
12. Conclusion 363
References 364
Contents xi
13. Climate Change Scenarios and Their Potential Impact
on World Agriculture 367
C. Wallace and D. Viner
1. What causes the climate system to change? 367
2. Past climatic changes 369
3. Anthropogenic forcing of the climate system 372
4. Future changes in anthropogenic forcing 374
5. Implications of SRES scenarios on global climate 375
5.1. Temperature 376
5.2. Precipitation 377
5.3. Sea level rise 378
5.4. Mitigation possibilities within the agricultural sector 379
6. Implications of SRES scenarios on regional climate 379
6.1. Europe 379
6.2. North America 385
7. Impacts of future climate change on agriculture 385
7.1. Europe 386
7.2. North America 387
References 388
Color Plates 391
Index 397