Environmental Stressors and Cooling Interventions on Simulated Soccer Performance Jeffrey Aldous

238 Pages·2016·4.89 MB·English

Environmental Stressors and Cooling Interventions on
Simulated Soccer Performance

Jeffrey Aldous

This is a digitised version of a dissertation submitted to the University of
Bedfordshire.
It is available to view only.
This item is subject to copyright.
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS AND COOLING INTERVENTIONS ON
SIMULATED SOCCER PERFORMANCE.

By

Jeffrey William Frederick Aldous BSc (Hons)

A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

January 2016
LIST OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... viii
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... ix
PUBLISHED WORK AND CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS FROM THIS THESIS AND
ADDITIONAL COLLABORATIVE PROJECTS .................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xi
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS .......................................... xvi
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... xviii
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1
1.1. General Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 5
2.1. Physical performance in soccer ...................................................................................... 5
2.1.1. Physical performance ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.2. Variation of physical performance measures in soccer match-play ........................ 9
2.2. Energy provision in soccer ............................................................................................ 10
2.2.1. Aerobic ................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2. Anaerobic ............................................................................................................... 11
2.3. Extreme environments and soccer ................................................................................ 13
2.3.1. Hypoxia and soccer ................................................................................................ 16
2.3.1.1. Composition of the atmosphere ...................................................................... 17
2.3.1.2. Oxygen cascade .............................................................................................. 18
2.3.1.3. Cardiovascular responses at hypoxia .............................................................. 19
2.3.1.4. Exercise induced-arterial-hypoxaemia ............................................................ 21
2.3.1.5. Physical performance during soccer at hypoxia ............................................. 26
2.3.2. Heat and soccer ...................................................................................................... 29
2.3.2.1. Mechanisms of heat transfer ........................................................................... 30
2.3.2.2. Heat-induced-decrements ............................................................................... 32
2.3.2.3. Central factors ................................................................................................. 33
2.3.2.4. Peripheral factors ............................................................................................ 35
2.3.2.4.1. Muscular temperature and responses ....................................................... 36
2.3.2.4.2. Skin temperature and responses ............................................................... 37
2.3.2.5. Cardiovascular responses in the heat .............................................................. 38
2.3.2.6. Physical performance during soccer in the heat ............................................. 41
2.3.3. Heat-hypoxia and soccer ........................................................................................ 43
2.4. Pre and half-time-cooling in soccer .............................................................................. 47
i
2.4.1. Pre-cooling and half-time-cooling ......................................................................... 47
2.4.2. Cooling strategies and methods ............................................................................. 49
2.4.3. External cooling ..................................................................................................... 49
2.4.3.1. Ice packs.......................................................................................................... 51
2.4.4. Internal cooling ...................................................................................................... 52
2.4.4.1. Ice slurry ......................................................................................................... 52
2.4.5. Mixed-methods ...................................................................................................... 54
2.4.5.1. Internal and external mixed-methods cooling................................................. 54
2.5. Soccer-specific simulations .......................................................................................... 56
2.51. Field based simulations ........................................................................................... 56
2.5.2. Laboratory based simulations ................................................................................ 58
2.5.3. Non-motorised treadmill based simulations .......................................................... 59
2.6. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 63
2.7. Aims and hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 3: GENERAL METHODOLOGIES .................................................................... 65
3.1. Ethical approval and location of testing ........................................................................ 66
3.2. Participant recruitment and control measures ............................................................... 67
3.3. Anthropometry measurements ...................................................................................... 69
3.4. Maximum oxygen uptake test ....................................................................................... 69
3.5. Non-motorised treadmill specifications and safety ....................................................... 69
3.6. Activity Profile Design of the intermittent Soccer Performance Test (iSPT) .............. 71
3.6.1. Variable run ........................................................................................................... 73
3.6.2. 3 s vs 6 s Sprints ..................................................................................................... 74
3.7. Familiarisation with the non-motorised treadmill ......................................................... 74
3.8. Physical performance measures .................................................................................... 75
3.9. Physiological responses ................................................................................................ 76
3.9.1. Heart rate monitoring ............................................................................................. 76
3.9.2. Oxygen saturation within the arterial blood .......................................................... 76
3.9.3. Hydration status assessment .................................................................................. 76
3.10. Subjective measures .................................................................................................... 77
3.10.1. Perceived exertion ................................................................................................ 77
3.10.2. Thermal sensation scale ....................................................................................... 77
3.10.3. Readiness to invest physical and mental effort .................................................... 77
3.11. Body temperature measurement ................................................................................. 77
3.11.1. Rectal temperature ............................................................................................... 78
3.11.2. Skin temperature .................................................................................................. 78
3.11.3. Mean body temperature ....................................................................................... 78
ii
3.11.4. Muscle temperature .............................................................................................. 78
3.12. Blood collection .......................................................................................................... 79
3.12.1. Blood lactate ........................................................................................................ 79
3.12.2. Blood plasma volume .......................................................................................... 79
3.13. Generation of hot, hypoxic and hot-hypoxic exposures ............................................. 80
3.14. Pre-cooling and half-time-cooling methods ................................................................ 81
3.14.1. Cooling environment ........................................................................................... 81
3.14.2. No cooling (control) and water consumption ...................................................... 81
3.14.3. Ice packs .............................................................................................................. 82
3.14.4. Ice slurry .............................................................................................................. 83
3.14.5. Mixed-methods .................................................................................................... 84
3.15. Statistical analysis ....................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 4. Experiment 1: The Reliability and Validity of a Soccer-Specific Non-Motorised
Treadmill Simulation ............................................................................................................... 85
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 86
4.1.1. Experimental aims and hypothesis ........................................................................ 87
4.2. Methods ......................................................................................................................... 87
4.2.1. Participants ............................................................................................................. 87
4.2.2. General experimental controls ............................................................................... 87
4.2.3. Experimental design .............................................................................................. 87
4.2.4. Experimental procedures ....................................................................................... 88
4.2.5. Soccer performance measurements........................................................................ 88
4.2.6. Statistical analysis .................................................................................................. 88
4.3. Results ........................................................................................................................... 96
4.3.1. Overall and between halves ................................................................................... 96
4.3.2. Between 15 min ..................................................................................................... 97
4.4. Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 98
4.4.1. Reliability ............................................................................................................... 98
4.4.1.1. Physical performance (Reliability) ................................................................. 99
4.4.1.2. Physiological responses (Reliability) ............................................................ 100
4.4.1.3. Nonogram ..................................................................................................... 101
4.4.1.4. Summary of reliability .................................................................................. 102
4.4.2. Validity ................................................................................................................ 103
4.4.2.1. Total distance Covered ................................................................................. 103
4.4.2.2. High-speed distance and sprint distance Covered ........................................ 103
4.4.2.3. Peak sprint speed........................................................................................... 105
4.4.2.4. Variable run distance Covered ...................................................................... 105
iii
4.4.2.5. HR ................................................................................................................. 106
4.4.2.6. Blood Lactate ................................................................................................ 106
4.4.2.7. Summary of Validity..................................................................................... 107
4.4.3. Experimental limitations ...................................................................................... 108
4.4.4. Potential applications ........................................................................................... 108
4.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 109
Chapter 5. Experiment 2: The Influence of Extreme Environments (Hypoxia, Hot and Hot-
Hypoxia) on Soccer-Specific Physical Performance and Physiological Responses. ............. 110
5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 111
5.1.1. Experimental aims and hypothesis ...................................................................... 112
5.2. Method ........................................................................................................................ 112
5.2.1. Participants ........................................................................................................... 112
5.2.2. General experimental controls ............................................................................. 112
5.2.3. Experimental design ............................................................................................ 112
5.2.4. Experimental procedures ..................................................................................... 113
5.2.5. Soccer performance measures.............................................................................. 113
5.2.6. Statistical analyses ............................................................................................... 113
5.3. Results ......................................................................................................................... 116
5.3.1. Physical performance measures ........................................................................... 116
5.3.1.1. Between conditions and halves ..................................................................... 116
5.3.1.1.1. Total distance covered ........................................................................... 117
5.3.1.1.2. High-speed distance covered ................................................................. 117
5.3.1.1.3. Sprint distance covered .......................................................................... 119
5.3.1.1.4. Variable run distance covered ................................................................ 120
5.3.1.2. Between 15 min blocks ................................................................................. 120
5.3.1.2.1. High-speed distance covered ................................................................. 120
5.3.1.2.2. Sprint distance covered .......................................................................... 121
5.3.1.2.3. Variable run distance covered ................................................................ 121
5.3.1.2.4. Peak sprint speed .................................................................................... 121
5.3.2. Body temperature measures ................................................................................. 123
5.3.2.1. Tre and Tsk ................................................................................................. 125
5.3.2.2. Tmu and Tbody ............................................................................................. 125
5.3.3. Subjective measures ............................................................................................. 126
5.3.3.1. Perceived Exertion .................................................................................... 127
5.3.3.2. TS .............................................................................................................. 127
5.3.4. Physiological measures ........................................................................................ 128
5.3.4.1. SaO2 ........................................................................................................... 128
iv
5.3.4.2. Body mass ................................................................................................. 128
5.3.4.3. HR ............................................................................................................. 129
5.3.5. Blood measures .................................................................................................... 129
5.3.5.1 Bla .............................................................................................................. 129
5.3.5.2. Plasma volume changes ............................................................................ 130
5.3.6. Regression analysis .............................................................................................. 130
5.4. Discussion ................................................................................................................... 132
5.4.1. Physical performance ........................................................................................... 132
5.4.2. Physiological responses ....................................................................................... 134
5.4.3. Experimental limitations ...................................................................................... 138
5.4.4. Potential applications ........................................................................................... 139
5.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 139
Chapter 6. Experiment 3: The Influence that Pre-Cooling and Half-Time-Cooling Has on
Soccer-Specific Physical Performance and Physiological Responses in a Hot Environment,
when utilising iSPT. ............................................................................................................... 141
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 142
6.1.1. Experimental Aims and hypothesis ..................................................................... 143
6.2. Methodology ............................................................................................................... 143
6.2.1. Participants ........................................................................................................... 143
6.2.2. General experimental controls ............................................................................. 143
6.2.3. Experimental design ............................................................................................ 143
6.2.4. Experimental procedures ..................................................................................... 144
6.2.5. Soccer performance measures.............................................................................. 144
6.2.6. Statistical analysis ................................................................................................ 146
6.3. Results ......................................................................................................................... 147
6.3.1. Physical performance ........................................................................................... 147
6.3.1.1 Between conditions and halves ...................................................................... 147
6.3.1.1.1. Total distance covered ........................................................................... 148
6.3.1.1.2. High-speed distance covered ................................................................. 148
6.3.1.1.3. Sprint distance covered .......................................................................... 149
6.3.1.1.4. Variable run distance covered ................................................................ 149
6.3.1.2. Between 15 min ............................................................................................ 150
6.3.1.2.1. High-speed distance covered ................................................................. 150
6.3.1.2.2. Sprint distance covered .......................................................................... 150
6.3.1.2.3. Variable run distance covered ................................................................ 150
6.3.1.2.4. Peak sprint speed .................................................................................... 152
6.3.2. Body Temperature Measures ............................................................................... 152
v
6.3.2.1. Tre .................................................................................................................. 152
6.3.2.2. Tsk .................................................................................................................. 153
6.3.2.3. Tmu ................................................................................................................. 155
6.3.2.4. Tbody ............................................................................................................... 155
6.3.3. Subjective Measures ............................................................................................ 156
6.3.3.1. Perceived exertion ......................................................................................... 156
6.3.3.2. TS .................................................................................................................. 157
6.3.3.3. RTIPE and RTIME ....................................................................................... 158
6.3.4. Physiological Responses ...................................................................................... 159
6.3.4.1. HR ................................................................................................................. 159
6.3.4.2. Body mass ..................................................................................................... 159
6.3.5. Blood measures .................................................................................................... 159
6.3.5.1. Bla and plasma volume changes ................................................................... 159
6.4. Discussion ................................................................................................................... 160
6.4.1. Physical performance ........................................................................................... 160
6.4.2. Physiological responses ....................................................................................... 163
6.4.3. Experimental limitations ...................................................................................... 167
6.4.4. Potential applications ........................................................................................... 168
6.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 169
CHAPTER 7: SYNTHESIS OF EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS AND GENERAL
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 171
7.1. General discussion ...................................................................................................... 171
7.2. Limitations and future research recommendations ..................................................... 174
7.3. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 179
CHAPTER 8: REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 180
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 198

vi
DECLARATION

I declare that this thesis is own unaided work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the University of Bedfordshire. It has not been submitted before any degree or
examination in any other University.

I declare that the word count of this thesis is 61,390 words in length from the introduction to
the commencement of the bibliography.

Jeffrey Aldous
19th January 2015

vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this doctoral thesis would not have been achievable without the generous
assistance of numerous people, both in my academic and personal life. Firstly, I must thank my
supervisor’s Dr Lee Taylor, Dr Bryna Chrismas and Dr Ibrahim Akubat. Lee, I may not have
been the easiest person to supervise at times but your patience with me and tireless proof
reading is thoroughly appreciated. Bryna, your statistical and linear mixed modelling
knowledge has been a great help throughout this PhD and has enhanced my statistical
knowledge significantly, thank you. Iby, thank you for being on the other end of the phone to
answer questions I have had over the past three and half years, your knowledge on all things
soccer (football) and NMT has been of great benefit to my thesis. I hope that I have done you
all proud!!
I must also thank Dr Grant Abt for creating iSPT which gave me the chance to complete this
PhD. I have also been lucky to collaborate with other academic staff; Dr Ben Dascombe, Dr
Lex Mauger, Dr Paul Castle, Prof Adrian Midgley and Prof John Brewer. Thank you for your
proof reading on papers and intellectual advice throughout my PhD journey.
I must also thank all the participants who completed in these studies. The iSPT is a gruelling
protocol and therefore, some blood, sweat and occasional tears (often mine, when the NMT
broke down) were shed throughout testing. Thank you guys, it really is appreciated!!!!
A big thank you must also go to the lab technicians at UoB (Warwick Riley and Roisin
McBride) for their help with fixing equipment that I often broke and patching up holes in our
environmental chamber. A huge thank you must also go to Lucy Beel, Charlotte Stringer and
Sam Page for their help with data collection over the last three years.
I must also thank the postgraduate community at UoB, who I have had the pleasure to work
and party with at various stages over the last three and half years. In particular Dr Rosalind
Lancaster, Dr David Hughes, Dr James Tuttle, Alan Metcalfe, Josh Foster, Lee Warren, Callum
Mould, Diogo Leal and Nicole Coull. Alongside all the academic support the various games in
the office at the end of the day including ‘one touch, one bounce’ were a great time waster and
provided several laughs and near misses (Often lights or laptops) in recent years.
I need to thank everyone in “team fly”. The Flying Horse has been my second home for the
last five years and there are so many friends I have made who have often cheered me up after
a long gruelling day testing. A big thank you to Nick Webb and Zac Barrett from Rising Stars
viii