Environmental Science: Foundations and Applications PDF
Preview Environmental Science: Foundations and Applications
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Foundations and Applications This page intentionally left blank ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Foundations and Applications Andrew Friedland Dartmouth College Rick Relyea University of Pittsburgh David Courard-Hauri Drake University (With Ross Jones and Susan Weisberg) W. H. Freeman and Company Publisher: Peter Marshall Senior Acquisitions Editor: Jerry Correa Executive Marketing Manager: Debbie Clare Developmental Editor: Rebecca Kohn Art Development: Lee Wilcox Project Manager: Karen Misler Media Editor: Patrick Shriner Supplements Editor: Amanda Nietzel Assistant Editor: Marni Rolfes Photo Editor: Ted Szczepanski Photo Researcher: Debbie Goodsite Cover Designer: Diana Blume Text Designer: Lissi Sigillo Senior Project Editor: Mary Louise Byrd Illustrations: Precision Graphics Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page Production Coordinator: Julia DeRosa Composition: Sheridan Sellers Printing and Binding: QuadGraphics Photo Credits for Opening Pages for Science Applied Essays solar cells Andreas Weber/iStockphoto.com faucet Jozsef Szasz-Fabian/Dreamstime.com people Phil Degginger/Alamy polar bear Jan Will/iStockphoto.com farmer’s market Dan Moore/iStockphoto.com Library of Congress Control Number: 2010940423 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-4029-1 ISBN-10: 0-4292-4029-6 ©2012 by W. H. Freeman and Company All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First printing W. H. Freeman and Company 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 Houndmills, Basingstoke RG21 6XS, England www.whfreeman.com To Katie, Jared, and Ethan for their interest and enthusiasm —AJF To Christine, Isabelle, and Wyatt for their patience and inspiration —RAR v Brief Contents Chapter 11 Agriculture: Feeding the World 282 Foundations science applied How Do We Define Organic Chapter 1 Environmental Science: Studying Food? 310 the State of Our Earth 1 Chapter 12 Nonrenewable Energy: Coal, Oil, Natural Chapter 2 Environmental Systems: Matter, Gas, and Nuclear Fuels 314 Energy, and Change 26 Chapter 13 Renewable Energy: Innovative Uses of science applied Were We Successful in Halting the Earth, Sun, Wind, and Water 342 Growth of the Ozone Hole? 52 science applied Should Corn Become Fuel? 376 Chapter 3 Ecosystem Ecology: Interactions Between the Living and Nonliving Chapter 14 Water Pollution: Causes and World 56 Effects 380 Chapter 4 Global Climates and Biomes: Geographic Chapter 15 Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Variations in Temperature and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 408 Precipitation 86 Chapter 16 Waste: Solid Waste Generation and Chapter 5 Evolution and Biodiversity: Origin Disposal 436 and Diversification of Organisms 118 Chapter 17 Human Health and Toxicology: science applied How Should We Prioritize the Environmental Sources of Health Protection of Species Diversity? 144 Risk 462 Chapter 6 Population and Community Ecology: science applied Is Recycling Always Good for the Distribution and Abundance of Environment? 490 Species 148 Chapter 18 Conservation of Biodiversity: Protection Chapter 7 Human Populations: Patterns of Earth’s Species and Ecosystems 494 and Processes of Human Population Growth 178 Chapter 19 Global Change: Climate Alteration and Global Warming 516 science applied How Can We Manage Overabundant Animal Populations? 202 Chapter 20 Working Toward Sustainability: Environmental Economics, Equity, and Policy 548 Applications science applied Can We Solve the Carbon Crisis Chapter 8 Earth’s Resources: Geologic Processes, Using Cap-and-Trade? 572 Soil, and Minerals 206 Appendix: Fundamentals of Graphing APP-1 Chapter 9 Water Resources: Supply, Distribution, Bibliography BIB-1 and Use 234 Glossary GL-1 science applied Is There a Way to Resolve the Photo Credits PC-1 California Water Wars? 256 Index I-1 Chapter 10 Land: Public and Private 260 Engage Your Environment Activities EYE-1 vi ■ BRIEF CONTENTS Contents About the Authors xiii CRUNCH THE NUMBERS The Mystery of the Missing Salt 44 Preface xv Natural systems change across space and over time 46 Foundations WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Chapter 1 Environmental Science: Studying Managing Environmental Systems in the the State of Our Earth 1 Florida Everglades 47 Check Your Understanding 49 Chapter Opener: The Mysterious Neuse Apply the Concepts 51 River Fish Killer 1 Measure Your Impact: Bottled Water versus Environmental science offers important insights Tap Water 51 into our world and how we influence it 2 Engage Your Environment 51 Humans alter natural systems 3 science applied Were We Successful in Halting Environmental scientists monitor natural systems the Growth of the Ozone Hole? 52 for signs of stress 4 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Converting to Hectares 7 Chapter 3 Ecosystem Ecology: CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Rates of Forest Clearing 11 Interactions Between the Living and Human well-being depends on sustainable Nonliving World 56 practices 12 Science is a process 15 Chapter Opener: Reversing the Environmental science presents unique Deforestation of Haiti 57 challenges 19 Ecosystem ecology examines interactions WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY between the living and nonliving world 58 Using Environmental Indicators to Make Energy flows through ecosystems 60 a Better City 21 Matter cycles through the biosphere 65 Check Your Understanding 23 Ecosystems respond to disturbance 73 Apply the Concepts 24 Ecosystems provide valuable services 77 Measure Your Impact: Exploring Your Footprint 25 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Raising Mangoes 78 Engage Your Environment 25 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Can We Make Golf Greens Greener? 80 Chapter 2 Environmental Systems: Matter, Check Your Understanding 82 Energy, and Change 26 Apply the Concepts 84 Chapter Opener: A Lake of Salt Water, Dust Measure Your Impact: Atmospheric Storms, and Endangered Species 27 Carbon Dioxide 84 Earth is a single interconnected system 28 Engage Your Environment 85 All environmental systems consist of matter 29 Chapter 4 Global Climates and Biomes: Energy is a fundamental component of Geographic Variations in Temperature and environmental systems 36 Precipitation 86 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Calculating Energy Use 38 Chapter Opener: Floods, Droughts, Energy conversions underlie all ecological processes 42 and Famines 87 Systems analysis shows how matter and energy Global processes determine weather and flow in the environment 43 climate 88 CONTENTS vii Variations in climate determine the Community ecologists study species dominant plant growth forms of terrestrial interactions 161 biomes 99 The composition of a community changes Aquatic biomes are categorized by salinity, over time 168 depth, and water flow 108 The species richness of a community is WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY influenced by many factors 171 Is Your Coffee Made in the Shade? 113 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Check Your Understanding 115 Bringing Back the Black-Footed Ferret 172 Apply the Concepts 116 Check Your Understanding 174 Measure Your Impact: How Much Paper Do Apply the Concepts 176 You Use? 116 Measure Your Impact: The Living Planet Index 177 Engage Your Environment 117 Engage Your Environment 177 Chapter 5 Evolution and Biodiversity: Chapter 7 Human Populations: Origin and Diversification of Organisms 118 Patterns and Processes of Human Population Growth 178 Chapter Opener: The Dung of the Devil 119 Earth is home to a tremendous diversity of Chapter Opener: The Environmental species 120 Implications of China’s Growing Population 179 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Estimating Diversity 122 Evolution is the mechanism underlying Scientists disagree on Earth’s carrying biodiversity 124 capacity 180 Speciation and extinction determine Many factors drive human population biodiversity 130 growth 181 Evolution shapes ecological niches and CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Calculating Population determines species distributions 134 Growth 187 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Many nations go through a demographic Buying the Oceans? 139 transition 188 Check Your Understanding 141 Population size and consumption interact to Apply the Concepts 142 influence the environment 191 Sustainable development is a common, if Measure Your Impact: The True Cost of a Green Lawn 143 elusive, goal 196 Engage Your Environment 143 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY science applied Gender Equity and Population Control How Should We Prioritize the in Kerala 197 Protection of Species Diversity? 144 Check Your Understanding 199 Apply the Concepts 200 Chapter 6 Population and Community Measure Your Impact: National Footprints 201 Ecology: Distribution and Abundance of Engage Your Environment 201 Species 148 science applied How Can We Manage Chapter Opener: New England Forests Come Overabundant Animal Populations? 202 Full Circle 149 Nature exists at several levels of complexity 150 Applications Population ecologists study the factors that regulate population abundance and distribution 151 Chapter 8 Earth’s Resources: Geologic Processes, Soil, and Minerals 206 Growth models help ecologists understand population changes 154 Chapter Opener: Are Hybrid Electric CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Calculating Exponential Vehicles as Environmentally Friendly as Growth 156 We Think? 207 viii ■ CONTENTS The availability of Earth’s resources was Residential land use is expanding 273 determined when the planet was formed 208 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Earth is dynamic and constantly changing 209 The Dudley Street Neighborhood 278 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Plate Movement 216 Check Your Understanding 279 The rock cycle recycles scarce minerals Apply the Concepts 281 and elements 217 Measure Your Impact: The Costs of Soil links the rock cycle and the biosphere 221 Commuting 281 The uneven distribution of mineral Engage Your Environment 281 resources has social and environmental consequences 226 Chapter 11 Agriculture: Feeding the WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY World 282 Mine Reclamation and Biodiversity 229 Chapter Opener: A Farm Where Animals Check Your Understanding 231 Do Most of the Work 283 Apply the Concepts 232 Human nutritional requirements are not Measure Your Impact: What Is the Impact of Your always satisfied 284 Diet on Soil Dynamics? 233 The Green Revolution and industrial farming Engage Your Environment 233 methods have transformed agriculture 287 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Land Needed for Food 288 Chapter 9 Water Resources: Supply, Genetic engineering is revolutionizing Distribution, and Use 234 agriculture 293 Chapter Opener: Dams and Salmon on Alternatives to industrial farming methods the Klamath River 235 are gaining more attention 295 Water is abundant, but usable water is rare 236 Modern agribusiness includes the farming Humans can alter the availability of water 242 of meat and fish 300 Water is used by humans for agriculture, WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY industry, and household needs 246 Wes Jackson and the Land Institute 304 The future of water availability depends on Check Your Understanding 306 many factors 250 Apply the Concepts 308 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Selecting the Most Cost- Measure Your Impact: The Ecological Footprint Efficient Washing Machine 251 of Food Consumption 309 WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY Engage Your Environment 309 Is the Water in Your Toilet Too Clean? 252 science applied Check Your Understanding 254 (cid:3)How Do We Define Organic Food? 310 Apply the Concepts 255 Measure Your Impact: Saving Water 255 Engage Your Environment 255 Chapter 12 Nonrenewable Energy: Coal, Oil, science applied Natural Gas, and Nuclear Fuels 314 (cid:44)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3) (cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:34)(cid:3) 256 Chapter Opener: All Energy Use Has Consequences 315 Chapter 10 Land: Public and Private 260 Nonrenewable energy accounts for most of our energy use 316 Chapter Opener: Who Owns a Tree? Julia Butterfly Hill versus Maxxam 261 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Efficiency of Travel 321 Human land use affects the environment Electricity is a convenient form of energy 322 in many ways 262 CRUNCH THE NUMBERS Calculating Electricity Public lands are classified according to Supply 324 their use 265 Fossil fuels provide most of the world’s energy 325 Land management practices vary according to their use 268 Fossil fuels are a finite resource 330 CONTENTS ■ ix
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