Environmental Management of Energy from Biofuels and Biofeedstocks

272 Pages·2014·1.518 MB·English

by  James G. Speight, Kamel Singh

Environmental Management of Energy
from Biofuels and Biofeedstocks
Scrivener Publishing
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Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Environmental
Management of Energy
from Biofuels and
Biofeedstocks
James G. Speight and Kamel Singh
Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.
Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem,
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Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Cover design by Kris Hackerott
Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-1-118-23371-9
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface ix
1 Fuels From Biomass 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Th e Growth of Biofuels 3
1.2.1 Factors Spurring Growth in the Biofuels Market 4
1.2.2 Challenges to the Wide-Scale Use Of Biofuels 6
1.2.3 History of Biofuels Programs 7
1.2.4 Current Biofuel Production 8
1.3 Conventional Biomass Feedstocks 13
1.3.1 Fuels from Food Fiber and Feed Crops
(1st Generation) 13
1.4 Challenges to Conventional Feedstocks 22
1.5 Fuels from Crop Residues, Wood and Dedicated
Energy Crops 23
1.5.1 Characteristics of Cellulosic Biomass 24
1.5.2 Biomass Residues and Organic Wastes 26
1.5.3 Wood Residues 27
1.5.4 Crop Residues 28
1.5.5 Energy Crops 30
1.5.6 Micro-Algae 31
1.6 Technologies for Converting Biomass into
Liquid Fuels 33
1.6.1 Th ermochemical Conversion 33
1.6.2 Biochemical Conversion 35
1.6.3 Emerging Developments in Conversion Technology 36
1.7 Th e Biorefi nery Concept 38
v
vi Contents
1.8 Outlook for Cellulosic Liquid Fuels 42
1.9 Biofuels 43
1.9.1 Ethanol from Sugars 43
1.9.2 Ethanol from Starches 44
1.9.3 Fuel Ethanol 44
1.9.4 Lipid-Derived Biofuels 46
References 48
2 Environmental Aspects 53
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 57
2.3 Life Cycle Considerations of Biofuels 59
2.3.1 Feedstock Production, Harvest, Processing,
Transport 61
2.4 Refi ning Feedstocks Into Biofuels 68
2.4.1 Transport of Feedstocks and Fuel 70
2.4.2 Combustion 71
2.4.3 Results of Well-to-Wheel Analyses 73
2.4.4 Reducing the Climate Impact of Biofuels 74
2.5 Impact of Growing Biomass 77
2.5.1 Habitat Destruction 78
2.5.2 Minimizing Land-Use and Impact on Wildlife 81
2.5.3 Impact on Soil Quality 83
2.5.4 Impact on Water Resources 85
2.5.5 Impact on Air Quality 86
References 87
3 Biofuel Policies 93
3.1 Introduction 93
3.2 Regional, National and Local Policies 96
3.2.1 Africa 97
3.2.2 Asia and the Pacifi c 99
3.2.3 Latin America 102
3.2.4 Europe 105
3.2.5 North America 106
3.3 International Environmental Instruments 108
3.3.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 109
3.3.2 Other Emissions 110
Contents vii
3.4 Standards and Certifi cation Schemes 111
3.5 International Trade 115
References 121
4 Th e Biofuel Life Cycle 125
4.1 Introduction 125
4.2 Energy Balance and Energy Effi ciency of Biofuels 126
4.3 Ethanol in SI Engines 132
4.4 Ethanol in CI Engines 134
4.5 Biodiesel Blends 136
4.6 Unblended Biodiesel 138
4.7 Other Biofuels 140
4.7.1 Vegetable Oil and Animal Fats 141
4.7.2 Dimethyl Ether 143
4.7.3 Biomass to Liquid 144
References 149
5 Social Aspects 153
5.1 Introduction 153
5.2 Agricultural and Rural Development 157
5.3 Expanding Markets 159
5.4 Creating Employment 163
5.5 Subsidies 166
5.6 Biofuel Processing 167
5.7 Biofuels for Local Use 169
5.8 Food Versus Fuel Debate 170
5.9 Infrastructure Requirements 174
5.10 Transport, Storage and Delivery 175
5.11 Government Policies and Regulations 178
References 182
6 Th e Future of Biofuels 187
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Next Generation Biofuels 191
6.3 Integrated Refi ning Concepts – Th e Biorefi nery 194
6.3.1 Th e Biorefi nery Concept 196
6.3.2 Process Options 197
6.3.3 Anaerobic Digestion 201
viii Contents
6.3.4 Fermentation and Hydrolysis 202
6.3.5 Transesterifi cation 203
6.4 Strategies for Biofuel Use 204
6.5 Market Barriers of Biofuel 205
6.6 Managing Biofuel Production 207
6.6.1 Food or Fuel 208
6.6.2 Non-Food Feedstocks 209
6.6.3 Vegetable Oil 210
6.7 Th e Future 210
References 215
Conversion Factors 219
Glossary 221
Index 251
Preface
Biomass is a renewable resource, whose utilization has received great atten-
tion due to environmental considerations and the increasing demand for
energy worldwide. Since the energy crises of the 1970s, many countries
have become interested in biomass as a fuel source to expand the develop-
ment of domestic and renewable energy sources, reduce the environmental
impact of energy production, provide rural prosperity for its poor farmers
and bolster a fl at agricultural sector. Biomass energy (bioenergy) can be an
important alternative in the future and a more sustainable energy. In fact,
for large portions of the rural population of developing countries, and for
the poorest section of urban populations, biomass is oft en the only avail-
able and aff ordable source of energy for satisfying basic needs as cooking
and heating.
However, for a given feedstock, management includes several important
issues that require attention: (1) sustainability, choice of feedstocks and
markets (2) chemical composition of the biomass, conversion processes and
technologies (3) availability of land and land use, and the earth’s resources
(4) the various environmental issues that accompany biomass cultivation
and use (5) rural development, prosperity, employment for the poor and
landless (6) biofuel life cycle (energy balance and energy effi ciency, GHG
(greenhouse gas) emissions) (7) policies, subsidies and (8) future for bio-
fuels etc. Indeed, while many observers claim that biofuel production and
use are an environmental benefi t, this is not the case. Indeed, 1st genera-
tion biofuels have a multiplicity of ethical, political, social, economic and
environmental concerns and are viewed as competing for agricultural pro-
duction destined for food, feed, fi bre and fertilizer. Th e main concerns are
that production of 1st generation biofuels competes with food for feedstock
and fertile land, potential availability is limited by soil fertility and per
hectare yields (1 hectare = 2.47 acres) and that eff ective savings of carbon
dioxideemissions and fossil energy consumption are limited by the high

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