Environmental geology

576 Pages·2020·337.823 MB·English

by  Carla W. Montgomery

eleventh edition
Environmental
Geology
Carla W. Montgomery
Professor Emerita
Northern Illinois University
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 1 29/10/18 3:01 pm
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY, ELEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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MHID 0-07-802295-9 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-47114-4 (loose-leaf edition)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Montgomery, Carla W., 1951- author.
Environmental geology / Carla W. Montgomery (professor emerita,
Northern Illinois University).
Eleventh edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2020] |
Includes index.
LCCN 2018041730 | ISBN 9780078022951 (student edition : alk. paper)
LCSH: Environmental geology.
LCC QE38 .M66 2020 | DDC 550--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018041730
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate
an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 2 29/10/18 3:01 pm
I n Dedication
Environmental Geology is affectionately
dedicated to the memory of Ed Jaffe,
whose confidence in an unknown author
made the first edition possible.
–CWM–
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 3
PPrreeffaaccee
About the Course cannot, for instance, use a resource that is not there, or build a
secure home or a safe dam on land that is fundamentally un-
Environmental Geology Is Geology Applied stable. Geology, then, is a logical place to start in developing an
to Living understanding of many environmental issues. The principal
aim of this book is to present the reader with a broad overview
The environment is the sum of all the features and conditions
of environmental geology. Because geology does not exist in a
surrounding an organism that may influence it. An individu-
vacuum, however, the text introduces related considerations
al’s physical environment encompasses rocks and soil, air
from outside geology to clarify other ramifications of the sub-
and water, such factors as light and temperature, and other or-
jects discussed. Likewise, the present does not exist in isolation
ganisms. One’s social environment might include a network
from the past and future; occasionally, the text looks at both
of family and friends, a particular political system, and a set
how the earth developed into its present condition and where
of social customs that affect one’s behavior.
matters seem to be moving for the future. It is hoped that this
Geology is the study of the earth. Because the earth pro-
knowledge will provide the reader with a useful foundation for
vides the basic physical environment in which we live, all of
discussing and evaluating specific environmental issues, as
geology might in one sense be regarded as environmental geol-
well as for developing ideas about how the problems should be
ogy. However, the term environmental geology is usually re-
solved.
stricted to refer particularly to geology as it relates directly to
human activities, and that is the focus of this book. Environ-
mental geology is geology applied to living. We will examine Features Designed for the
how geologic processes and hazards influence human activities
Student
(and sometimes the reverse), the geologic aspects of pollution
and waste-disposal problems, and several other topics.
This text is intended for an introductory-level college course. It
Why Study Environmental Geology? does not assume any prior exposure to geology or college-level
mathematics or science courses. The metric system is used
One reason for studying environmental geology might simply
throughout, except where other units are conventional within a
be curiosity about the way the earth works, about the how and
discipline. (For the convenience of students not yet “fluent” in
why of natural phenomena. Another reason is that we are in-
metric units, a conversion table is included in Appendix C, and
creasingly faced with environmental problems to be solved and
in some cases, metric equivalents in English units are included
decisions to be made, and in many cases, an understanding of
within the text.)
one or more geologic processes is essential to making informed
Each chapter opens with an introduction that sets the
choices or finding appropriate solutions.
stage for the material to follow. In the course of the chapter,
Of course, many environmental problems cannot be fully
important terms and concepts are identified by boldface type,
assessed and solved using geologic data alone. The problems
and these terms are collected as “Key Terms and Concepts” at
vary widely in size and in complexity. In a specific instance,
the end of the chapter for quick review. The Glossary includes
data from other branches of science (such as biology, chemistry,
both these boldface terms and the additional, italicized terms
or ecology), as well as economics, politics, social priorities, and
that many chapters contain. Each chapter includes one or
so on may have to be taken into account. Because a variety of
more case studies. Some involve a situation, problem, or ap-
considerations may influence the choice of a solution, there is
plication that might be encountered in everyday life. Others
frequently disagreement about which solution is “best.” Our
offer additional case histories or examples relevant to chapter
personal choices will often depend strongly on our beliefs about
contents. Every chapter concludes with review exercises,
which considerations are most important.
which allow students to test their comprehension and apply
their knowledge. The “Exploring Further” section of each
About the Book
chapter includes a number of activities in which students can
engage, some involving online data, and some, quantitative
An introductory text cannot explore all aspects of environmen- analysis. For example, they may be directed to examine real-
tal concerns. Here, the emphasis is on the physical constraints time stream-gaging or landslide-monitoring data, or informa-
imposed on human activities by the geologic processes that tion on current or recent earthquake activity; they can
have shaped and are still shaping our natural environment. In a manipulate historic climate data from NASA to examine
real sense, these are the most basic, inescapable constraints; we trends by region or time period; they may calculate how big a
iv
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 4
wind farm or photovoltaic array would be required to replace information on Yellowstone caldera presented. The
a conventional power plant; they can even learn how to reduce deadly 2018 pyroclastic flows at Volcán de Fuego are
sulfate pollution by buying SO allowances. described. Case Study 5.1 now includes the Kilauea
2
Any text of this kind must necessarily be a snapshot in activity that threatened Pahoa in 2014, and the more-
time: The earth keeps evolving and presenting us with new extensive and varied activity of 2018.
geologic challenges; our understanding of our world advances; Chapter 6 Information on more-recent flood events added.
our responses to our environment change. And of course, there Discussions of flash floods, and of the role of hurricanes
is vastly more relevant material that might be included than in inland flooding, expanded. New material on flood
will fit in one volume. To address both of these issues, at least warnings.
in part, two kinds of online resources have been developed for Chapter 7 Updated with expanded coverage of Hurricane/
each chapter. One is “NetNotes,” a modest collection of Inter- Superstorm Sandy, including a connection between the
net sites that provide additional information and/or images rel- damage and climate change, and addition of material on
evant to the chapter content, or may serve as sources of newer Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria. Storm tide added
data as they become available. The NetNotes should prove use- to discussion of storm surge.
ful to both students and instructors. An effort has been made to Chapter 8 Images and discussion of the recent Big Sur, Oso,
concentrate on sites with material at an appropriate level for the and Bingham Canyon slides added; coverage of the
book’s intended audience and also on sites likely to be rela- Attabad slide and Yosemite rockfalls expanded; the
tively stable in the very fluid world of the Internet (government Montecito slide added as an illustration of the role of
agencies, educational institutions, or professional-association wildfires in increasing slide hazards.
sites). The other resource is “Suggested Readings/References,” Chapter 9 New data on the dwindling of alpine glaciers
some of which can also be accessed online. These are a mix of presented. Vulnerability of areas around the globe to
background material and articles that feature additional ideas desertification is illustrated.
or examples pertinent to the chapter. Chapter 10 New/updated information on Arctic sea-ice cover,
global temperatures, atmospheric CO levels, effects of
2
permafrost melting, heat storage in the oceans. New
New and Updated Content material on recent trends in temperature and precipitation
in the contiguous United States and on the latest
Australian heat wave. New section on geoengineering.
Environmental geology is, by its very nature, a dynamic field
Chapter 11 U.S. water-use and groundwater-storage figures
in which new issues continue to arise and old ones to evolve.
updated; new data on soil moisture added. Updates on
Every chapter has been updated with regard to data, examples,
recent subsidence in the San Joaquin valley and on the
and figures.
state of the Aral Sea. New Case Study 11 focuses on
Illustrations Geology is a visual subject, and photographs, the Colorado River and includes information on the
satellite imagery, diagrams, and graphs all enhance drought-enhanced depletion of Lake Mead.
students’ learning. Accordingly, this edition includes Chapter 12 Updated data on U.S. soil erosion by wind and
more than one hundred new or improved photographs/ water and expanded discussion of changes over the past
images and nearly sixty new figures, and revisions have several decades. Patterns of soil composition across the
been made to dozens more. contiguous 48 states presented.
Chapter 13 All tables of U.S. and world mineral reserves,
Content additions and revisions to specific chapters include:
resources, production, and consumption updated.
Chapter 1 Population data and projections have been Expanded coverage of U.S. import dependence, overall
updated. and in connection with materials in mobile devices.
Chapter 2 Case Study 2 updated to reflect the current status Case Study 13.1 updates the role of China in world REE
of the Libby vermiculite site cleanup. supply and the status of the U.S. Mountain Pass mine.
Chapter 3 Case Study 3 expanded to highlight some Chapter 14 All data on U.S. and world reserves, and U.S.
remaining questions about the details of plate tectonics. production and consumption, of fossil fuels updated.
Chapter 4 New major earthquakes have been added. The Expanded discussion of hydraulic fracturing, including
phenomenon of slow-slip earthquakes is introduced. its impact on gas reserves; expanded treatment of the
Treatment of induced seismicity, especially as related to Deepwater Horizon accident. Current status of the
fracking, is expanded, as is discussion of the hazard debate on oil leasing in the Arctic National Wildlife
represented by the Cascadia subduction zone. Reserve noted.
Earthquake hazard maps are updated. Results of Chapter 15 World energy production by source and
appeals in the trials connected with the l’Aquila, consumption projections updated. Current status of the
Italy, earthquake are noted. Fukushima cleanup and the effects of the accident on
Chapter 5 Fractional crystallization as a means of global use of nuclear fission power discussed, with
modifying magma composition is added. New updated figures on power reactors worldwide. Current
Preface v
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 5
U.S. use of renewable energy presented, noting the The next several chapters treat individual processes in
expanding use of wind power and the effects of western detail. Those examined in the second section are relatively
drought on hydropower availability. large-scale processes, which can involve motions and forces in
Chapter 16 Updates on U.S. and selected other countries’ the earth hundreds of kilometers below the surface, and may
waste-disposal strategies, including recycling; status of lead to dramatic, often catastrophic events like earthquakes
radioactive-waste disposal worldwide. New data on and volcanic eruptions. Other processes—such as the flow of
numbers of National Priorities List Superfund sites in rivers and glaciers or the blowing of the wind—occur only
the United States and on sites with cleanup completed. near the earth’s surface, altering the landscape and occasion-
Chapter 17 Chapter partially reorganized for better flow. ally causing their own special problems. These are the focus of
New information on industrial sources of water-pollutant the third section. In some cases, geologic processes can be
discharge and on water pollution detections in modified, deliberately or accidentally; in others, human
groundwater from municipal wells nationwide. Expanded/ activities must be adjusted to natural realities. The section on
updated coverage of mercury in fish and shellfish, and surface processes concludes with a chapter on climate, which
fish consumption advisories in U.S. lakes and streams. connects or affects a number of the surface processes described
Chapter 18 Updates on U.S. emissions by type and source, earlier.
with separate treatment of fine particulates, and A subject of increasing current concern is the availability
information on the global effects of fine particulates on of resources. A series of five chapters deals with water re-
health. New data on U.S. air quality and trends, and sources, soil, minerals, and energy; the rates at which they are
pH, sulfate, and nitrate in precipitation. Improved being consumed; probable amounts remaining; and projections
presentation of global ozone distribution by season; of future availability and use. Climate change may be affecting
current status of the Antarctic ozone hole, recent ozone the availability and distribution of water resources. In the case
depletion over the Arctic. Case Study 18 includes of energy resources, we consider both those sources extensively
expanded coverage of radon as an indoor air-pollution used in the past and new sources that may or may not success-
hazard, and regional variations in that hazard. fully replace them in the future.
Chapter 19 The Paris Agreement, including key provisions Increasing population and increasing resource consump-
and the status of U.S. involvement, added, together with tion lead to an increasing volume of waste to be disposed of;
related data on changes in global CO emissions since thoughtless or inappropriate waste disposal, in turn, commonly
2
2000, and China’s rapidly rising share. Expanded creates increasing pollution. The three chapters of the fifth sec-
discussion of Arctic land claims for potential resource tion examine the interrelated problems of air and water pollu-
development. Updated data on ozone-depleting tion and the strategies available for the disposal of various
substances and the Montreal Protocol, and Environmental kinds of wastes.
Impact Statement filings. New information on the The final two chapters deal with a more diverse assort-
financial pressures on the federal flood-insurance ment of subjects. Environmental problems spawn laws intended
program in light of recent severe storms. Status of the to solve them; chapter 19 looks briefly at a sampling of laws,
Keystone XL pipeline project updated in Case Study 19. policies, and international agreements related to geologic mat-
Chapter 20 New/updated information on U.S. land cover/use ters discussed earlier in the book, and some of the problems
and changes since 1982; U.S. population-density map with such laws and accords. Chapter 20 examines geologic con-
updated to reflect the latest census. New Case Study straints on construction schemes and the broader issue of trying
20.2, on the Oroville Dam spillway incident of 2017. to determine the optimum use(s) for particular parcels of
land—matters that become more pressing as population growth
The online “NetNotes” have been checked, all URLs
pushes more people to live in marginal places.
confirmed, corrected, or deleted as appropriate, and new en-
Relative to the length of time we have been on earth,
tries have been added for every chapter. The “Suggested
humans have had a disproportionate impact on this planet.
Readings/References” have likewise been updated, with some
Appendix A explores the concept of geologic time and its mea-
older materials removed and new items added in each chapter.
surement and looks at the rates of geologic and other processes
by way of putting human activities in temporal perspective.
Organization
Appendix B provides short reference keys to aid in rock and
mineral identification, and Appendix C includes units of mea-
The book starts with some background information: a brief surement and conversion factors.
outline of earth’s development to the present, and a look at one Of course, the complex interrelationships among geo-
major reason why environmental problems today are so logic processes and features mean that any subdivision into
pressing—the large and rapidly growing human population. chapter-sized pieces is somewhat arbitrary, and different in-
This is followed by a short discussion of the basic materials of structors may prefer different sequences or groupings (streams
geology—rocks and minerals—and some of their physical and groundwater together, for example). An effort has been
properties, which introduces a number of basic terms and con- made to design chapters so that they can be resequenced in such
cepts that are used in later chapters. ways without great difficulty.
vi Preface
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 6
Acknowledgments of the Desert; Amanda M. Hunt, University of Cincinnati Cler-
mont College; Randy S. Kertes, Rider University; Molly D.
Minnick, John Wood Community College; Carla S. Murray,
A great many people have contributed to the development of one
Carl Sandburg College; Troy Sampere, McNeese State Univer-
edition or another of this book. Portions of the manuscript of the
sity; Kevin Svitana, Otterbein University; Alexis Templeton,
first edition were read by Colin Booth, Lynn A. Brant, Arthur H.
University of Colorado Boulder; Shannon Wells, Old Dominion
Brownlow, Ira A. Furlong, David Huntley, John F. Looney Jr.,
University; and Brian Zimmer, Appalachian State University;
Robert A. Matthews, and George H. Shaw, and the entire book
plus additional feedback from Jack Bloom, Salt Lake Commu-
was reviewed by Richard A. Marston and Donald J. Thompson.
nity College, and Peter Nassar, George Washington University.
The second edition was enhanced through suggestions from
The input of all of the foregoing individuals, and of many
Robert B. Furlong, Jeffrey J. Gryta, David Gust, Robert D. Hall,
other users who have informally offered additional advice, has
Stephen B. Harper, William N. Mode, Martin Reiter, and Laura
substantially improved the text, and their help is most grate-
L. Sanders; the third, with the assistance of Susan M. Cashman,
fully acknowledged. If, as one reviewer commented, the text
Robert B. Furlong, Frank Hanna, William N. Mode, Paul N elson,
“just keeps getting better,” a large share of the credit certainly
Laura L. Sanders, and Michael A. Velbel; the fourth, through
belongs to the reviewers and users. (I only wish that space had
the input of reviewers Herbert Adams, Randall Scott Babcock,
permitted me to incorporate all of the excellent ideas that have
Pascal de Caprariis, James Cotter, Dru Germanoski, Thomas E.
been offered over the years!) Any remaining shortcomings are,
Hendrix, Gordon Love, Steven Lund, Michael McKinney, Barbara
of course, my own responsibility.
Ruff, Paul Schroeder, Ali Tabidian, Clifford Thurber, and John
M. Dalecheck, C. Edwards, I. Hopkins, and J. McGregor at
Vitek. The fifth edition was improved thanks to reviews by Kevin
the USGS Photo Library in Denver provided invaluable assis-
Cole, Gilbert N. Hanson, John F. Hildenbrand, Ann E. Homes,
tance with the photo research over the years. The encouragement
Alvin S. Konigsberg, Barbara L. Ruff, Vernon P. Scott, Jim Stim-
of a number of my colleagues—particularly Colin Booth, Ron C.
son, Michael Whitsett, and Doreen Zaback; the sixth, by reviews
Flemal, Donald M. Davidson Jr., R. Kaufmann, and Eugene C.
from Ray Beiersdorfer, Ellin Beltz, William B. N. Berry, Paul
Perry Jr.—was a special help during the development of the first
Bierman, W. B. Clapham Jr., Ralph K. Davis, Brian E. Lock,
edition. The ongoing support and interest of fellow author, deanly
Gregory Hancock, Syed E. Hasan, Scott W. Keyes, J ason W.
colleague, and ecologist Jerrold H. Zar has been immensely help-
Kelsey, John F. Looney Jr., Christine Massey, Steve Mattox, Wil-
ful. Thanks are most certainly also due to the thousands of envi-
liam N. Mode, William A. Newman, Clair R. Ossian, David L.
ronmental geology students I have taught, many of whom in the
Ozsvath, Alfred H. Pekarek, Paul H. Reitan, and Don Rimstidt;
early years suggested that I write a text, and whose classes col-
and the seventh, by reviewers Thomas J. Algaeo, Ernest H. Carl-
lectively provided a testing ground for many aspects of the pre-
son, Douglas Crowe, Richard A. Flory, Hari P. Garbharran,
sentations herein.
Daniel Horns, Ernst H. Kastning, Abraham Lerman, Mark
My family has been supportive of this undertaking from
Lord, Lee Ann Munk, June A. Oberdorfer, Assad I. Panah,
the inception of the first edition. A very special vote of appre-
James S. Reichard, Frederick J. Rich, Jennifer Rivers Coombs,
ciation goes to my husband, Warren—ever-patient sounding
Richard Sleezer, and Michael S. Smith. The eighth edition ben-
board, occasional photographer and field assistant—in whose
efited from suggestions by Richard Aurisano, Thomas B. Bov-
life this book has so often loomed so large.
ing, Ernest H. Carlson, Elizabeth Catlos, Dennis DeMets,
Last, but assuredly not least, I express my deep gratitude
Hailiang Dong, Alexander Gates, Chad Heinzel, Edward Ko-
to the entire McGraw-Hill book team and their predecessors for
hut, Richard McGehee, Marguerite Moloney, Lee Slater, and
their enthusiasm, professionalism, and just plain hard work,
Dan Vaughn, and additional comments by Nathan Yee; the
without which successful completion of each subsequent edi-
ninth, from reviews by Christine Aide, James Bartholomew,
tion of this book would have been impossible.
Thomas Boving, Jim Constantopoulos, Mark Groszos, Duke
Carla W. Montgomery
Ophori, Bianca Pedersen, John Rockaway, Kevin Svitana, and
Clifford H. Thurber, and input from Mauri Pelto; and the tenth,
thanks to reviewers Michael Caudill, Katherine Grote, Lee
Slater, Alexis Templeton, Adil Wadia, and Lee Widmer. This
eleventh edition, in turn, has been enhanced by thoughtful sug-
gestions and comments from reviewers Alan I. Benimoff, Col-
lege of Staten Island/CUNY; Richard E. Cowart, Coastal Bend
College; James Constantopoulos, Eastern New Mexico Univer-
sity; Marc Defant, University of South Florida; David Roy
Dockstader, Jefferson Community and Technical College; Sam-
uel Earman, Millersville University; Kenneth G. Galli, Noah
Garrison, University of California; Boston College; Anne
Marie Larson Hall, Emory University; Ann Harris, Eastern
Kentucky University–Manchester Campus; Alan Hurt, College
Preface vii
mon22959_fm_i-xx.indd 7
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