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Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editor Environmental Footprints of Recycled Products Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes SeriesEditor SubramanianSenthilkannanMuthu,HeadofSustainability-SgTGroupandAPI, HongKong,Kowloon,HongKong IndexedbyScopus Thisseriesaimstobroadlycoveralltheaspectsrelatedtoenvironmentalassessment ofproducts,developmentofenvironmentalandecologicalindicatorsandeco-design ofvariousproductsandprocesses.Belowaretheareasfallundertheaimsandscope ofthisseries,butnotlimitedto:EnvironmentalLifeCycleAssessment;SocialLife Cycle Assessment; Organizational and Product Carbon Footprints; Ecological, Energy and Water Footprints; Life cycle costing; Environmental and sustainable indicators; Environmental impact assessment methods and tools; Eco-design (sustainable design) aspects and tools; Biodegradation studies; Recycling; Solid waste management; Environmental and social audits; Green Purchasing and tools;Productenvironmentalfootprints;Environmentalmanagementstandardsand regulations; Eco-labels; Green Claims and green washing; Assessment of sustain- abilityaspects. Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttps://link.springer.com/bookseries/13340 Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editor Environmental Footprints of Recycled Products Editor SubramanianSenthilkannanMuthu SgTGroupandAPI HongKong,Kowloon,HongKong ISSN2345-7651 ISSN2345-766X (electronic) EnvironmentalFootprintsandEco-designofProductsandProcesses ISBN978-981-16-8425-8 ISBN978-981-16-8426-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8426-5 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SingaporePteLtd.2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Contents CarbonFootprintsofRecycledPlasticPackagingandHousehold FoodConsumptionbyGenderinSpain .............................. 1 P.OsorioandM.A.Tobarra ThePotentialofRefuse-DerivedFuelProductioninReducing theEnvironmentalFootprintoftheCementIndustry ................. 35 GiseledeLorenaDinizChaves, RenatoRibeiroSiman, GlaydstonMattosRibeiro,andNi-BinChang Ecological Footprint of Multi-silicon Photovoltaic Module Recycling ......................................................... 65 DilawarHusain, KirtiTewari, ManishSharma, AkbarAhmad, andRaviPrakash An Environmental Construction and Demolition Waste ManagementModeltoTriggerPost-pandemicEconomicRecovery TowardsaCircularEconomy:TheMexicanandSpanishCases ........ 83 PilarMercader-Moyano, JesúsLópez-López, andPatriciaEdithCamporeale EcologicalFootprintAssessmentofRecycledAsphaltPavement Construction ...................................................... 137 AnsariYakubZafarAbid, AnsariAbuUsama, DilawarHusain, ManishSharma,andRaviPrakash v About the Editor Dr.SubramanianSenthilkannanMuthucurrentlyworksforSgTGroupasHead ofSustainabilityandisbasedoutofHongKong.HeearnedhisPh.D.fromTheHong KongPolytechnicUniversityandisarenownedexpertintheareasofEnvironmental Sustainability in Textiles and Clothing Supply Chain, Product Life Cycle Assess- ment(LCA)andProductCarbonFootprintAssessment(PCF)invariousindustrial sectors.Hehasfiveyearsofindustrialexperienceintextilemanufacturing,research and development and textile testing and over a decade’s experience in life cycle assessment(LCA),carbonandecologicalfootprintsassessmentofvariousconsumer products.Hehaspublishedmorethan100researchpublications,writtennumerous bookchaptersandauthored/editedover100booksintheareasofCarbonFootprint, Recycling,EnvironmentalAssessmentandEnvironmentalSustainability. vii Carbon Footprints of Recycled Plastic Packaging and Household Food Consumption by Gender in Spain P.OsorioandM.A.Tobarra Abstract Households’behaviourandconsumptionpatternsareultimatelyrespon- sible for most global carbon emissions and therefore should be one main focus of sustainabilitypolicies.Detailedinformationprovidedbycarbonfootprintscanhelp in that process by identifying factors and quantifying the environmental potential from changes. This chapter presents the calculated carbon footprints for Spanish single-person and average households using a multiregional input–output (MRIO) modelanddatafromtheHouseholdBudgetSurvey(HBS).Thisallowsustoanalyze thedifferencesinconsumptionandemissionsbygenderandcompareittothebase- lineoftheaverageconsumptionunit.Wefindahighercarbonfootprintformen(5049 vs.4947kgCO ),resultingmainlyfromtheirhigherlevelofconsumptionandtheir 2 expending in transport, alcoholic beverages, tobacco and restaurants. This carbon footprintforsingle-personhouseholdsisstilllowerthanfortheaverageconsump- tion unit (5123 kg CO ). When we focus on emissions from food consumption, 2 wefindhoweveralargercarbonfootprintforwomenastheytendtocookmoreat home,butdoubleemissionsfromrestaurantsformencomparedtowomen.Together withreducingconsumptionandchangingpatternsawayfromspecificproductsand servicesliketransport,recyclingisacrucialpartoftheenvironmentalstrategies.In thischapter,weusedatafromHBSfoodexpenditureandlifecycleemissionsfrom PlasticsEurope (The circular economy for plastics—a European overview, 2020), emissionssharesfromplasticpackagingbyPooreandNemecek(Science360:987– 992, 2018) and total and percentages of recycled packaging from Ecoembes (Las cifras del reciclaje, 2019). We compare the carbon footprint from recycled versus newplasticandcalculatethepotentialreductionsinemissionsfromincreasingthe shareofrecyclingforhouseholds’packaging. · · Keywords Carbonfootprint Recycledproducts Multiregionalinput–output · · model Sustainabilityandgender Plasticpackaging B P.Osorio·M.A.Tobarra( ) DepartmentofEconomicsandFinance,FacultaddeCienciasEconómicasyEmpresariales, UniversidaddeCastilla-LaMancha,PlazadelaUniversidad,1,02071Albacete,Spain e-mail:[email protected] ©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2022 1 S.S.Muthu(ed.),EnvironmentalFootprintsofRecycledProducts, EnvironmentalFootprintsandEco-designofProductsandProcesses, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8426-5_1 2 P.OsorioandM.A.Tobarra 1 Introduction Climatechangealreadyaffectsallregionsintheworldandthetimetofixitisrunning out.UndermostemissionsscenariosconsideredbyIPCC(2021),wewillnotachieve the goal of keeping the rise in global temperatures under 1.5 °C. This problem will require strong, quick and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, soalltheeconomicagentsmustfocusonthat.Thisglobalclimaticemergencyhas raised concerns about consumption sustainability in recent years. As households areresponsibleforalmost75%ofglobalcarbonemissions(DruckmanandJackson 2016),itiscrucialtoidentifypotentialdriverstoadvancetowardsamoresustainable economy. Consumptionpatternsarethefocusofrecentstudiesbothtoidentifytheirenviron- mentalimpactandthepolicyoptionsinordertoinducechangestowardsreducing emissions and use of natural resources. That behaviour from consumers has been relatedtoadifferentindividual,householdandregionaldeterminants.Inthatlineof research,asobservedinmultiplestudies,genderisakeydifferenceinenvironmental attitudeandbehaviour. Women have been identified in several studies as being more environmentally awareandmorepronetotakeintoaccounttheimpactoftheireconomicdecisions onothersandtheircommunity.Theirconsumptionlevelandstructurearealsodeter- minedbytheirincome,whichtendstobelowerthanfortheirmalecounterpartsand other individual characteristics such as their age, educational attainment and work status. Differences also arise from their activities, as for example, women tend to cook more rather than eat out and make more intense use of public versus private transport. Thesedifferences canbesignificant whendesigningpolicies andincentives for consumers and justify delving deeper into their extent and causes. In this regard, descriptive analysis from data that includes expenditure and environmental effects byindividualcharacteristicscanbecomefairlyuseful. Considering the above-mentioned factors, the present research analyzes carbon footprintbygenderinSpanishsingle-personhouseholds,comparedtotheaverage household.Carbonfootprintshavebeencalculatedbyusingamulti-regionalinput– output (MRIO) model that follows the seminal Wassily Leontief’s input–output methodology(LeontiefandFord1972)aswellasagrowingliteratureonthesubject (WiedmannandLenzen2018;Ivanovaetal.2017;Tobarraetal.2018).Thismethod- ologyallowsustocombinedetaileddatawithinformationoninter-industriallinks betweencountries,disaggregatingglobalproductionchains. WestartfrommicrodatafromtheSpanishHouseholdBudgetSurvey(INE2015) thatweprocessusingRandSPSSsoftware.Tomakethesedatacompatiblewiththe SystemofNationalAccounts(SNA),wefollowCazcarroetal.(2020).Datahomo- geneity avoids potential biases and is achieved by reorganizing and transforming the original data to take into account differences between products and industries, classificationsforHBSandSNAandbasicversuspurchaserprices. CarbonFootprintsofRecycledPlasticPackaging… 3 Changes in consumption patterns and environmental behaviour are one of the strategiesputforwardtoaddressclimatechangechallenges.Inthissense,recycling has become a crucial part of national sustainability strategies. To shed some light onthisissue,wecombinedataonfoodexpenditurefromtheHBS,informationon lifecycleemissionsfromPlasticsEurope(2021),percentagesthatpackagingrepre- sentsfordifferentfoodproducts(PooreandNemecek2018)andsharesofrecycled packagingbyhouseholdsforSpain(Ecoembes2021). Thecalculatedfootprintsareusedtoanalyzethedifferencesinconsumptionand emissionspatternsbygender.Ourresultsshowedarelevantdifferencebetweenmen andwomen,withtheformerhavingahigherconsumptionlevel(3%)thattranslates into a higher carbon footprint (2%). Sector analysis showed men double women’s consumption of alcoholic beverages and restaurants. Women, on the other hand, spend12%moreonfood.Then,theconsumptionleveltranslatesintoahighercarbon footprint.Anaveragehouseholdfootprintis5123kgCO ,whereasitis4947kgCO 2 2 forwomen’shouseholdsand5049kgCO formen. 2 As for emissions from food packaging, even though women living alone spend moreonfoodthanmen,wefindamoresignificantroleforpackaginginmaleemis- sions. This is dependent on food consumption patterns, as men buy more wine, coffeeandotherbeverages,whicharelinkedtogreateremissionsfrompackaging. ThatalsohighlightstheneedforincreasingrecyclinginSpain.Comparedtocoun- trieslikeGermany,whereallplasticpackagingiseitherrecycledorusedforenergy recovery, 34% of plastic packaging in Spain ends up in a landfill (PlasticsEurope 2021).Wealsocalculate,usingdifferentestimatesforplasticproductionandrecy- clingasthosebyCIEL(2019),howmuchincreasingtheshareofrecycledpackaging maylowerhouseholds’emissions. In the following sections, we develop all the required steps. We will start by reviewing the recent literature on the relevance of carbon emissions, particularly fromhouseholds’consumptionandtheimportanceofindividualcharacteristicsand expenditure patterns. We also comment on recent articles and data sources for emissions from plastics and recycled packaging products. We will then detail the methodologyusedinthischapter,includingthemultiregionalinput–output(MRIO) environmentally-extended model, HBS data and the transformations required to make those data compatible and calculate the carbon footprints and data sources and calculations to obtain the emissions incorporated in all plastic packaging and particularly,recycledplasticpackagingfromhouseholds.Chapter4showsourmain results (carbon emissions from household consumption, with particular detail for foodproducts,emissionsfromfoodpackagingandemissionsfromrecoveredplastic packaging,specificallyrecycledplastic),whileChap.5concludes. 2 LiteratureReview Sincethe1970s,theworld’spopulationhasdoubledandtheglobalGDPhasquadru- pled,whiletheuseofnaturalresourceshastripled(PIR2019)andcarbondioxide