Table Of Content

Environmental Assessment of Renewable Energy Conversion Technologies This pageintentionallyleftblank Environmental Assessment of Renewable Energy Conversion Technologies Editedby PARIS A. FOKAIDES School of Engineering,Frederick University, Nicosia, Cyprus ANGELIKI KYLILI Department of Environment, Ministryof Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment, Cyprus PHOEBE-ZOE GEORGALI School of Engineering,Frederick University, Nicosia, Cyprus Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2022ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 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Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatter ofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods, products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. ISBN:978-0-12-817111-0 ForInformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CandiceJanco AcquisitionsEditor:JessicaMack EditorialProjectManager:AliceGrant ProductionProjectManager:SruthiSatheesh CoverDesigner:MilesHitchen TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India Contents Listofcontributors xi Abouttheeditors xiii Section A 1. Introduction: environmentalassessment ofrenewable energy and storage technologies: current status 3 PanagiotaKonatziiandParisA.Fokaides References 8 Section B 2. Life cycle analysis of photovoltaicsystems:a review 11 EffrosyniGiamaandPhoebe-ZoeGeorgali 2.1 Introduction:EuropeanUnionroadmapforenergyandcarbonemissions 11 2.2 PVsystemdescription 13 2.3 Themethodology:lifecycleanalysis 19 2.4 Inventoryanalysis 19 2.5 Impactassessment 21 2.6 Conclusions—furtherresearch 28 Nomenclature 32 References 33 3. Life cycle assessment reviewin solarthermal systems 37 MariaMilousiandManolisSouliotis 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Building-integratedsolarthermalcollectors 38 3.2.1 Flatplatesolarthermalcollectors 38 3.2.2 Evacuatedtubesolarthermalcollectors 42 3.3 Building-addedsolarthermalsystems 44 3.3.1 Flatplatesolarthermalcollectors 44 3.4 Evacuatedtubesolarthermalcollectors 49 3.5 Conclusions 50 v vi Contents Nomenclature 51 References 51 4. Environmentalassessment of wind turbines andwindenergy 55 AngelikiKylili 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 State-of-the-artonwindturbinesandwindenergy 56 4.3 Lifecycleinventoryofwindturbinesandwindenergy 62 4.4 Lifecycleassessmentofwindturbinesandwindenergy 69 4.4.1 Keyparametersintheimplementationoflifecycleassessment studies 69 4.4.2 Significantfindingsfrompreviouslifecycleassessmentstudies 70 4.5 Criticalreviewontheenvironmentalassessmentofwindturbinesand windenergy 76 4.5.1 Sharedchallengesrelatedtolifecycleassessment 77 4.5.2 Technology-specificchallengesrelatedtolifecycleassessment 78 References 81 5. Environmentalassessment of biomassthermochemicalconversion routes through alifecycle perspective 85 KyriakosPanopoulos,GiorgosKardaras,TzoulianaKraia andMichaelBampaou 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Lifecycleassessmentofbiomassconversionroutes 87 5.2.1 Goalandscopedefinition 88 5.2.2 Lifecycleinventory 90 5.2.3 Lifecycleimpactassessment 91 5.2.4 Interpretationofresults 92 5.3 Lifecycleassessmentofbiomassthermochemicalconversionroutes 94 5.3.1 Conversionofbiomasstobiofuelsthroughpyrolysis 94 5.3.2 Conversionofbiomasstosyngasviagasification 98 5.3.3 Overviewofselectedstudies 101 5.4 Issuesaffectingthecomparabilityoflifecycleassessmentstudies 115 5.4.1 Keyperformanceindicators 116 5.4.2 Productenvironmentalfootprintassessment 120 5.5 Conclusions 121 References 122 Furtherreading 127 Contents vii 6. Environmental assessment of biomassto biofuels:biochemical conversion routes 129 GuillermoGarcia-Garcia,StephenMcCordandPeterStyring 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 State-of-the-artoftheproductiontechnologies 132 6.2.1 Fermentation 132 6.2.2 Anaerobicdigestion 136 6.3 Calculationofenvironmentalimpactsvialifecycleassessment 140 6.3.1 Definitionofthegoalandscope 141 6.3.2 Lifecycleinventoryanalysis 142 6.3.3 Lifecycleimpactassessment 142 6.3.4 Interpretation 145 6.4 Keyperformanceindicatorsforlifecycleassessment 145 6.4.1 Fermentation 146 6.4.2 Anaerobicdigestion 147 6.5 Productenvironmentalfootprint 150 6.6 Conclusions 152 Acknowledgements 153 References 153 7. Environmental assessment of biomass-to-biofuels mechanical conversion routes (pelleting, briquetting) 157 EliasChristoforou 7.1 Introduction 157 7.2 Pelletingandbriquetting 159 7.2.1 Pelleting/briquettingfeedbiomass 159 7.2.2 Pellets/briquettesclassification 160 7.2.3 Processdescription 160 7.3 Lifecycleassessment 162 7.3.1 Generallifecycleassessmentframework 163 7.3.2 Lifecycleassessmentcomponentsinbiomassdensificationsystems 166 7.3.3 Previousworkonlifecycleassessmentofbiomassdensification systems 168 7.4 Conclusions 178 References 179 8. Life cycle assessment of geothermal power technologies 181 AndreaPaulillo,AlbertoStrioloandPaolaLettieri 8.1 Introduction 181 viii Contents 8.2 Technologiesforpowergeneration 184 8.2.1 Dry-steamtechnology 184 8.2.2 Single-flashtechnology 186 8.2.3 Multistageflashtechnologies 188 8.2.4 Binarycycletechnology 189 8.2.5 Enhancedgeothermalsystems 190 8.3 Lifecycleassessment:methodologicalaspects 191 8.3.1 Goalandscopedefinition 191 8.3.2 Lifecycleinventory:keyaspectsandparameters 192 8.3.3 LifeCycleInventory:coremodulephasesandactivities 194 8.3.4 Lifecycleinventory:handlingmultifunctionalprocesses 198 8.3.5 Lifecycleimpactassessment 200 8.3.6 Lifecycleinterpretation:reportingLCAresults 201 8.4 Casestudies 202 8.4.1 Hot-spotanalysis 202 8.4.2 Comparativeanalysis 204 Acknowledgments 206 References 207 Section C 9. Environmentalimpact assessment of hydropower stations 213 M.A.ParvezMahmudandNahinTasmin 9.1 Introduction 213 9.2 Materialsandmethods 216 9.3 Resultsanddiscussion 219 9.3.1 Environmentalprofilesofthehydropowerplants 219 9.3.2 Metal-andgas-basedemissionevaluation 224 9.3.3 Greenhouse-gasemissionestimation 225 9.3.4 Uncertaintyanalysis 225 9.4 Conclusion 227 References 228 10. A stakeholder impact analysis ofthe production ofthe energy vector hydrogen 231 HolgerSchlörandSandraVenghaus 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Methodologicalframeworkandbackground 234 Contents ix 10.3 Data—socialhotspotdatabase 235 10.4 Hydrogenproductionsimplifiedprocesschain—systemboundaries ofthehydrogenprocesschain 236 10.5 Results—socialrisksofthestakeholders 237 10.6 Conclusion 244 References 245 11. Environmental impact assessments of compressedair energy storage systems:areview 249 MdMustafizurRahman,AbayomiOlufemiOni,EskinderGemechu andAmitKumar 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Lifecycleassessment 252 11.3 State-of-the-artcompressedairenergystoragetechnologies 254 11.3.1 Conventionalcompressedairenergystorage 254 11.3.2 Adiabaticcompressedairenergystorage 254 11.3.3 Liquidairenergystorage 255 11.4 Lifecycleassessmentofcompressedairenergystoragesystems 258 11.4.1 Overviewoflifecycleassessmentstudiesoncompressed airenergystoragesystems 258 11.4.2 Discussiononhowlifecycleassessmentisusedin compressedairenergystoragestudies 260 11.5 Comparisonofenergystoragetechnologies 269 11.5.1 Greenhousegasemissions 269 11.5.2 Landfootprint 271 11.6 Conclusionsandrecommendations 272 Acknowledgments 273 References 273 12. Environmental impact assessment ofbattery storage 277 M.A.ParvezMahmudandNahinTasmin 12.1 Introduction 277 12.2 Batterystoragemarketsandproductionoverview 280 12.3 Methodology 283 12.4 Results 288 12.4.1 ImpactsofLi-ionbatteries 288 12.4.2 ImpactsofNiMHbatteries 289 12.4.3 ImpactsofNaClbatteries 292 12.5 Discussion 294 12.5.1 Impactoutcomecomparison 294