Environmental Aquatic Chemistry

442 Pages·2009·7.02 MB·English

Second Edition
Applications of
Environmental
Aquatic
Chemistry
A Practical Guide
Eugene R. Weiner
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Weiner, Eugene R.
Applications of environmental aquatic chemistry : a practical guide / Eugene R.
Weiner. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Applications of environmental chemistry / Eugene R. Weiner. 2000.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8493-9066-1 (alk. paper)
1. Environmental chemistry. 2. Water quality. I. Weiner, Eugene R.
Applications of environmental chemistry. II. Title.
TD193.W45 2007
628.1’68--dc22 2007048068
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
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Contents
Preface totheSecond Edition
Preface totheFirst Edition
Author
Chapter1
Water Quality
1.1 DefiningEnvironmentalWater Quality
1.1.1 Water-Use Classificationsand Water Quality Standards
1.1.2 Water Quality ClassificationsandStandards
forNatural Waters
1.1.3 Setting NumericalWater Quality Standards
1.1.4 Typical Water-UseClassifications
1.1.4.1 Recreational
1.1.4.2 Aquatic Life
1.1.4.3 Agriculture
1.1.4.4 Domestic Water Supply
1.1.4.5 Wetlands
1.1.4.6 Groundwater
1.1.5 StayingUp-to-DatewithStandards andOtherRegulations
1.2 Sources ofWater Impurities
1.2.1 Natural Sources
1.2.2 Human-Caused Sources
1.3 Measuring Impurities
1.3.1 What Impurities Are Present?
1.3.2 How MuchofEachImpurity IsPresent?
1.3.3 WorkingwithConcentrations
1.3.4 Molesand Equivalents
1.3.4.1 Working with EquivalentWeights
1.3.5 Case HistoryExample
1.3.6 How DoImpurities Influence Water Quality?
Exercises
Chapter2
Contaminant Behavior inthe Environment: BasicPrinciples
2.1 Behavior ofContaminantsin Natural Waters
2.1.1 Important Properties ofPollutants
2.1.2 Important Properties ofWater andSoil
2.2 What Are theFates ofDifferent Pollutants?
2.3 ProcessesThatRemove Pollutants from Water
2.3.1 Natural Attenuation
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2.3.2 TransportProcesses
2.3.3 Environmental Chemical Reactions
2.3.4 Biological Processes
2.4 Major Contaminant Groups and Natural Pathways forTheir
Removal from Water
2.4.1 Metals
2.4.2 Chlorinated Pesticides
2.4.3 HalogenatedAliphatic Hydrocarbons
2.4.4 FuelHydrocarbons
2.4.5 Inorganic NonmetalSpecies
2.5 Chemicaland PhysicalReactionsin theWater Environment
2.6 Partitioning Behavior ofPollutants
2.6.1 Partitioning from a Diesel OilSpill
2.7 Intermolecular Forces
2.7.1 Temperature Dependent Phase Changes
2.7.2 Volatility, Solubility, andSorption
2.7.3 Predicting Relative Attractive Forces
2.8 Origins of Intermolecular Forces: Electronegativities,
ChemicalBonds, and Molecular Geometry
2.8.1 Chemical Bonds
2.8.2 Chemical Bond Dipole Moments
2.8.3 Molecular Geometryand Molecular Polarity
2.8.4 Examples of Nonpolar Molecules
2.8.5 Examples of Polar Molecules
2.8.6 The Nature ofIntermolecular Attractions
2.8.7 Comparative Strengths of Intermolecular Attractions
2.9 Solubilityand Intermolecular Attractions
Exercises
Chapter 3
Major Water QualityParameters andApplications
3.1 Interactionsamong Water QualityParameters
3.2 pH
3.2.1 Background
3.2.2 Defining pH
3.2.3 Acid-Base Reactions
3.2.4 Importance ofpH
3.2.5 Measuring pH
3.2.6 Water QualityCriteria and Standards forpH
3.3 Oxidation–Reduction Potential
3.3.1 Background
3.4 Carbon Dioxide,Bicarbonate,and Carbonate
3.4.1 Background
3.4.2 Solubilityof CO in Water
2
3.4.3 Soil CO
2
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3.5 Acidit y and Alka linity
3.5.1 Background
3.5.2 Acidity
3.5.3 Alkalinity
3.5.4 Importance of Alkalinity
3.5.5 Water Quality Criteria and Standards forAlkalinity
3.5.6 Calculating Alkalinity
3.5.7 Calculating Changesin Alkalinity,Carbonate,and pH
3.6 Hardness
3.6.1 Background
3.6.2 Calculating Hardness
3.6.3 Importance of Hardness
3.7 DissolvedOxygen
3.7.1 Background
3.8 Biological OxygenDemand andChemical
OxygenDemand
3.8.1 Background
3.8.2 BOD
5
3.8.3 BOD Calculation
3.8.4 COD Calculation
3.9 Nitrogen:Ammonia, Nitrite, and Nitrate
3.9.1 Background
3.9.2 Nitrogen Cycle
3.9.3 Ammonia=Ammonium Ion
3.9.4 Water Quality Criteria and Standards forAmmonia
3.9.5 Nitrite and Nitrate
3.9.6 Water Quality Criteria and Standards forNitrate
3.9.7 Methodsfor RemovingNitrogen from Wastewater
3.9.7.1 Air-StrippingAmmonia
3.9.7.2 Nitrification–Denitrification
3.9.7.3 BreakpointChlorination
3.9.7.4 Ammonium IonExchange
3.9.7.5 Biosynthesis
3.10 Sulfide and Hydrogen Sulfide
3.10.1 Background
3.10.1.1 Formation ofH S inDetention Ponds,Wetlands,
2
andSewers
3.10.1.2 Typical Water Quality Criteria and Standards
forH S
2
3.10.2 Case Study
3.10.2.1 Odors ofBiological Origin inWater (Mostly
Hydrogen Sulfide and Ammonia)
3.10.2.2 Environmental Chemistry ofHydrogenSulfide
3.10.2.3 Chemical Control of Odors
3.10.2.4 pHcontrol
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3.10.2.5 Oxidation
3.10.2.6 Eliminate Reducing Conditions Caused
by Decomposing Organic Matter
3.10.2.7 Sorptionto ActivatedCharcoal
3.11 Phosphorus
3.11.1 Background
3.11.2 Important Usesfor Phosphorus
3.11.3 PhosphorousCycle
3.11.4 Mobility in theEnvironment
3.11.5 PhosphorousCompounds
3.11.6 Removal of DissolvedPhosphate
3.12 Solids (Total,Suspended,and Dissolved)
3.12.1 Background
3.12.2 TDSandSalinity
3.12.3 Specific Conductivity andTDS
3.12.4 TDSTestfor Analytical Reliability
3.13 Temperature
Exercises
Reference
Chapter 4
Behavior of Metal Species in theNatural Environment
4.1 Metals inWater
4.1.1 Background
4.1.2 Mobility of Metals intheWater Environment
4.1.3 General Behavior of DissolvedMetalsin Water
4.1.3.1 Hydrolysis Reactions
4.1.3.2 Hydrated Metalsas Acids
4.1.4 Influence ofpHonthe Solubilityof Metals
4.1.5 Influence ofRedoxPotential on theSolubility of Metals
4.1.5.1 Redox-Sensitive Metals: Cr, Cu, Hg, Fe, Mn
4.1.5.2 Redox-Insensitive Metals: Al, Ba, Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn
4.1.5.3 Redox-Sensitive Metalloids: As, Se
4.2 Metal Water QualityStandards
4.3 Case Study1
4.3.1 Treatment ofTraceMetalsin Urban Stormwater Runoff
4.3.2 Behavior of Common Stormwater Pollutants under Oxidizing
andReducing Conditions
4.4 Case Study2
4.4.1 Acid Rock Drainage
4.4.1.1 SummaryofAcid Formation in Acid
RockDrainage
4.4.1.2 Non-iron MetalSulfides DoNot Generate Acidity
4.4.1.3 Acid-BasePotential of Soil
4.4.1.4 Determining the Acid-Base Potential
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4.5 Case Study 3
4.5.1 Identifying Metal LossandGainMechanismsin aStream
Exercises
References
Chapter5
Soil, Groundwater, andSubsurface Contamination
5.1 Nature ofSoils
5.1.1 Soil Formation
5.1.1.1 Physical Weathering
5.1.1.2 Chemical Weathering
5.1.1.3 Secondary Mineral Formation
5.1.1.4 Rolesof Plants and Soil Organisms
5.2 Soil Profiles
5.2.1 Soil Horizons
5.2.2 SuccessiveSteps inthe Typical Developmentof aSoil
and Its Profile (Pedogenesis)
5.3 Organic Matter inSoil
5.3.1 Humic Substances
5.3.2 Some Properties ofHumicMaterials
5.3.2.1 Binding toDissolved Species
5.3.2.2 LightAbsorption
5.4 Soil Zones
5.4.1 Air inSoil
5.5 Contaminants Become Distributed inWater, Soil, and Air
5.5.1 Volatilization
5.5.2 Sorption
5.6 Partition Coefficients
5.6.1 Air–Water Partition Coefficient (Henry’sLaw)
5.6.2 Soil–Water Partition Coefficient
5.6.3 Determining K Experimentally
d
5.6.4 Role ofSoil Organic Matter
5.6.5 Octanol–Water Partition Coefficient, K
ow
5.6.6 EstimatingK UsingMeasured Solubilityor K
d ow
5.7 Mobilityof Contaminants inthe Subsurface
5.7.1 RetardationFactor
5.7.2 Effect of Biodegradationon EffectiveRetardation Factor
5.7.3 AModel forSorptionand Retardation
5.7.4 Soil Properties
5.8 Particulate Transportin Groundwater: Colloids
5.8.1 Colloid ParticleSize and Surface Area
5.8.2 Particle TransportProperties
5.8.3 Electrical Charges onColloids andSoil Surfaces
5.8.3.1 Electrical DoubleLayer
5.8.3.2 Adsorption and Coagulation
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5.9 Case Study: ClearingMuddy Ponds
5.9.1 Pilot JarTests
5.9.1.1 Jar TestProcedure with Alum Coagulant
5.9.1.2 Jar TestProcedure with Gypsum Coagulant
Exercises
References
Chapter 6
General Properties of Nonaqueous PhaseLiquids andthe Behavior ofLight
Nonaqueous Phase Liquidsin theSubsurface
6.1 Types andProperties of Nonaqueous PhaseLiquids
6.2 General Characteristics of Petroleum Liquids, theMost
Common LNAPL
6.2.1 Types ofPetroleum Products
6.2.2 Gasoline
6.2.3 Middle Distillates
6.2.4 Heavier FuelOils andLubricating Oils
6.3 Behavior of PetroleumHydrocarbons in theSubsurface
6.3.1 Soil Zones and Pore Space
6.3.2 Partitioning of Light Nonaqueous PhaseLiquids
intheSubsurface
6.3.3 Processes of SubsurfaceMigration
6.3.4 Petroleum Mobility Through Soils
6.3.5 Behavior of LNAPLinSoils and Groundwater
6.3.6 Summary: Behavior of Spilled LNAPL
6.3.7 Weathering ofSubsurface Contaminants
6.3.8 Petroleum Mobility and Solubility
6.4 Formation ofPetroleum ContaminationPlumes
6.4.1 Dissolved Contaminant Plume
6.4.2 Vapor Contaminant Plume
6.5 Estimating the Amount of LNAPLFree Product in theSubsurface
6.5.1 HowLNAPLLayerThickness inthe SubsurfaceAffects
LNAPL LayerThickness ina Well
6.5.1.1 Effect ofSoil Texture on LNAPLinthe Subsurface
and inWells
6.5.1.2 Effect ofWater TableFluctuationson LNAPL
in theSubsurface andin Wells
6.5.1.3 Effect ofWater TableFluctuationson LNAPL
Measurements inWells
6.6 Estimating the Amount of ResidualLNAPLImmobilized
intheSubsurface
6.6.1 Subsurface Partitioning Lociof LNAPLFuels
6.7 ChemicalFingerprinting ofLNAPLs
6.7.1 First Steps in Chemical Fingerprinting of Fuel Hydrocarbons
6.7.2 Identifying FuelTypes
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6.7.3 Age-Dating Fuel Spills
6.7.3.1 Gasoline
6.7.3.2 Changes inBTEX Ratios Measuredin Groundwater
6.7.3.3 Diesel Fuel
6.8 Simulated Distillation Curves and Carbon Number Distribution
Curves
References
Chapter7
Behavior ofDenseNonaqueous Phase Liquidsin theSubsurface
7.1 DNAPLProperties
7.2 DNAPLFree Product Mobility
7.2.1 DNAPLinthe Vadose Zone
7.2.2 DNAPLatthe Water Table
7.2.3 DNAPLinthe SaturatedZone
7.3 Testingfor thePresence of DNAPL
7.3.1 Contaminant Concentrations in Groundwater and Soil
That Indicate theProximity of DNAPL
7.3.2 Calculation Methodfor AssessingResidual DNAPLinSoil
7.4 Polychlorinated Biphenyls
7.4.1 Background
7.4.2 Environmental Behavior
7.4.3 Analysisof PCBs
7.4.4 Case Study: Mistaken Identification of PCBCompounds
References
Chapter8
Biodegradation and Bioremediation ofLNAPLs and DNAPLs
8.1 Biodegradationand Bioremediation
8.2 Basic Requirements forBiodegradation
8.3 BiodegradationProcesses
8.3.1 Case Study
8.3.1.1 Passive(Intrinsic)BioremediationofFuelLNAPLs:
CaliforniaSurvey
8.4 Natural Aerobic Biodegradation ofNAPLHydrocarbons
8.5 Determining theExtentof Bioremediation of LNAPL
8.5.1 Using ChemicalIndicators of theRate ofIntrinsic
Bioremediation
8.5.2 Hydrocarbon Contaminant Indicator
8.5.3 ElectronAcceptor Indicators
8.5.4 DissolvedOxygen Indicator
8.5.5 Nitrate Plus Nitrite DenitrificationIndicator
8.5.6 MetalReduction Indicators:Manganese (IV) toManganese (II)
and Iron (III)to Iron (II)
8.5.7 Sulfate Reduction Indicator
8.5.8 Methanogenesis(Methane Formation)Indicator
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8.5.9 Redox Potential andAlkalinity as Biodegradation Indicators
8.5.9.1 Using Redox Potentials toLocateAnaerobic
Biodegradationwithin thePlume
8.5.9.2 Using Alkalinity toLocateAnaerobic Biodegradation
withinthe Plume
8.6 Bioremediation of Chlorinated DNAPLs
8.6.1 ReductiveDechlorinationof Chlorinated Ethenes
8.6.2 ReductiveDechlorinationof Chlorinated Ethanes
8.6.3 Case Study: Using Biodegradation Pathways
forSource Identification
References
Chapter 9
Behavior of Radionuclidesin theWater and Soil Environment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Radionuclides
9.2.1 AFew BasicPrinciples ofChemistry
9.2.1.1 Matter and Atoms
9.2.1.2 Elements
9.2.2 Properties ofan AtomicNucleus
9.2.2.1 Nuclear Notation
9.2.3 Isotopes
9.2.4 Nuclear Forces
9.2.5 Quarks, Leptons,andGluons
9.2.6 Radioactivity
9.2.6.1 a Emission
9.2.6.2 b Emission
9.2.6.3 g Emission
9.2.7 Balancing NuclearEquations
9.2.8 Rates of RadioactiveDecay
9.2.8.1 Half-Life
9.2.9 Radioactive DecaySeries
9.2.10 Naturally Occurring Radionuclides
9.3 Emissions and TheirProperties
9.4 Units of RadioactivityandAbsorbed Radiation
9.4.1 Activity
9.4.2 Absorbed Dose
9.4.3 Dose Equivalent
9.4.4 Unit Conversion Tables
9.4.4.1 Converting between Units of Dose Equivalent
and Units of Activity(Rems toPicocuries)
9.5 Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes inthe Environment
9.5.1 Case Study: Radionuclidesin Public Water Supplies
9.5.2 Uranium
9.5.2.1 Uranium Geology
9.5.2.2 Uranium inWater
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