Enhancing Pig Productivity on East African Smallholder Farms

316 Pages·2015·2.29 MB·English

by  Natalie Carter

Enhancing Pig Productivity on East African
Smallholder Farms

by

Natalie Ann Carter

A Thesis
presented to
The University of Guelph

In partial fulfilment of requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Population Medicine

Guelph, Ontario, Canada

© Natalie Ann Carter, August 2015
ABSTRACT
ENHANCING PIG PRODUCTIVITY ON EAST AFRICAN SMALLHOLDER FARMS
Natalie Carter Advisor:
University of Guelph, 2015 Dr. Cate Dewey
East African smallholder farmers raise pigs to generate income for medicine, school, food, and
funerals (Dewey et al. 2011). Seasonal feed shortages and unbalanced diets contribute to slow
pig growth and reduced earnings.
The thesis objectives were to: 1) determine the average daily gain (ADG) of pigs on Kenyan
smallholder farms; 2) estimate east African pigs’ nutrient requirements; 3) develop low-cost diets
based on nutritional value and seasonal availability of east African pig feedstuffs; and 4)
compare pen-and pig-level productivity (ADG, feed conversion, impact of starting bodyweight
[SBW]) of Ugandan local and crossbreed pigs fed commercial versus forage- or silage-based
diet.
Factors associated with ADG of pigs weighed during a cross-sectional, observational study were
determined using linear models. Feedstuff nutrient composition was estimated through nutrient
analysis and from literature. Tropical-pig performance results were used to adjust the NRC
(2012) growing-finishing-pig nutrient requirement model and estimate east African pigs' nutrient
requirements. Diets were generated using a least-cost diet-formulation program. Pen- and pig-
level productivity of Ugandan pigs fed 1 of 3 randomly assigned diets (commercial, forage-
based, or silage-based) were assessed using linear and mixed linear regression models,
respectively.
Kenyan pigs had low ADG (0.13+0.002 kg/day). The ADG of 3- and 10- to 12-month-old pigs
(0.12±0.005 and 0.11±0.005 kg/day, respectively) was lower than that of 1-to 2-month-old pigs
(0.13±0.007 kg/day) (p<0.05). Assuming a 1kg birthweight ADG can be estimated with pigs'
weight and age. Nutritionally suitable pig feedstuffs available in 3 seasons are most limited from
November-February. High ash content in sampled milled feeds versus the literature suggests
contamination. For every 1kg increase in SBW, ADG increased by 0.012, 0.015, 0.013, and
0.009 kg/day in 9-15, 15-19, 20-24, and 28-32-week-old pigs, respectively. Feed conversion was
similar to that of other tropical pigs. Newly-weaned pigs fed forage- and silage-based diet had
lower ADG (0.27+0.013 and 0.25+0.013 kg/day less, respectively) than pigs fed commercial
diet. Forage- and silage-based diets are unsuitable for small newly-weaned pigs but are useful for
heavier pigs (11.9 and 9.2 kg SBW, for forage- and silage-based diet, respectively) and ensure an
ADG higher than that of pigs on Kenyan smallholder farms.
DEDICATIONS
This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my Grandma Irene Sadkowski who always encouraged
me to follow my dreams and with whom I loved to laugh,
and to the memory of Aunt Pat Szabo, Aunt Helen Oberski, Emily Wood, Nolan Young, Brian
Cathcart, and Paula Kantor whom we lost much too soon.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Cate Dewey, thank you for taking a chance on me and for giving me a backstage pass to
Kenya. Thank you for patiently teaching me, for supporting and believing in me, for mentoring
me, for opening your home to me, and for your friendship. In your lovely unassuming way you
have inspired me to have big dreams while reassuring me that even if I have helped just one
person then I have done a lot.
To my multi-disciplinary graduate committee: Dr. Kees de Lange thank you for teaching me
everything I needed to know about swine nutrition, with endless patience and open-mindedness;
Dr. Delia Grace thank you for invited me to do this PhD, for guiding and supporting me all along
the way, and for enabling me to have so many incredible opportunities and experiences beyond
the scope of this project; Dr. Sally Humphries thank you for helping me learn about the roles
and responsibilities of men and women in sub-Saharan Africa and through your words I will
always remember to question if our actions will exclude those most in need of our research; and
Dr. Ben Lukuyu thank you for all of your advice, for opening your extensive network of partners
to me, for your logistical support throughout East Africa, and for coming to see the feed trial in
action.
To my favourite Kenyan, Florence Kanini Mutua who has taught me an immeasurable number of
lessons through as many gentle nudges and who showed me Kenya through her eyes. Nashukuru
dada yangu.
Thank you to Karen Richardson who helped me in so many ways while I was on several
continents. Karen I am so grateful for all of your help and encouragement.
Thank-you to all my friends and peers and the staff and faculty of the Department of Population
Medicine, who warmly welcomed me and provided me with a fantastic, supportive, fun
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environment in which to do graduate studies. A special thank you to Cynthia Weijs, Liz Snyder,
Norah Menzies, Jody Riel and family, Jill Davey and family, Eliza Smith, and Kristina Roesel.
Thank you to Laura Falzon, Kiera Hoekstra, Rich Moccia, Paul Sharpe, Christine Taub, Ken
Hough, Randy Ragan, Ian Dohoo, Jane Poole, the University of Guelph EcoHealth Community
of Interest, Jodie Salter and the Dissertation Boot Camp team.
Thank-you to the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Smallholder Pig Value Chain
Project team lead by Dr. Danilo Pezo for welcoming me and for the support you gave me while I
was in Uganda. To Bioversity International and in particular Rachel Miwanda, Paul Basaiija,
Siifa Lwasa, Miracle Arikiza, and Herbert Mbuga. Thank you to the Masaka District Veterinary
Office, especially Dr. Lawrence Mayega and Joseph Sswerwadda, and Ms. Eve Luvumu for
endless tactical support, guidance, and facilitation. Muweebale and mugyebale! Thank you
Ponsiano Nyombi for opening Kamuzinda Farm to me and for your support and advice during
the feed trial. A special thank-you to the Nyombi family especially Rogers and Halle (who was
my favourite and youngest research assistant by far) who really made me feel at home. A very
special thank you to Charles Bunnya, and thank you to John Kiriggwa, Flora Kuteesa Namwanje,
John Kato Kalema, Alfred Alifunsi, and the smallholder pigs farmers in Kenyan and Uganda
who participated in this research.
Thank you to so many at ILRI Kenya in particular Tom Randolph, Isabelle Baltenweck, Kathy
Colverson, Rosekellen Njiru, Muthoni Gikaria, Wacera Ndonga, and Jane Wachira. Thank you
to Yonas Asmare and Alexandra Jorge at ILRI Addis Ababa, and KVSV Prasad and Michael
Blummel at ILRI Hyderabad.
Thank you Linda, Sally, Julie, Karla, Mary, and Christina who supported and encouraged me
tirelessly and always with a smile. Thank you to David Pearl, Jan Sargeant, Andria Jones,
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Sherilee Harper, Deep Khosa, Lee Neil, Olaf Berke, Scott McEwen, Bob Friendship, Terri
O’Sullivan, Julia Zhu, and Hector Martinez, who taught me so much about epidemiology, and
research, and pigs.
And to my wonderful family, thank you Andy, Marty, Paul, Lee, Sam, Mom, Dad, Diane,
Helen, Jen, Katherine, Erika, Lauren, Nathan, (and our newest additions Matthew, Jack, Norah,
and Lucas) for your support and love and endless encouragement, for countless airport drop-offs
and pick-ups, emails, phone and Skype calls, trips to East Africa, and dog care, and mostly for
believing in me and that one day I would be Dr. Nat.
This thesis would not have been possible without the financial support received over the duration
of my doctoral studies: the Canadian International Development Agency, the Smallholder Pig
Value Chain Development Project (SPVCD) funded by Irish Aid, the Livestock and Fish by and
for the Poor and Agriculture for Nutrition and Health CGIAR Research Programs, the
International Fund for Agricultural Development, and the European Commission, Queen’s
University, and Ontario Veterinary College and Ontario Agriculture College at University of
Guelph.

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STATEMENT OF WORK DONE
Dr. Florence Mutua and Dr. Cate Dewey and their respective research teams collected the
data analyzed in Chapter 2 as part of an observational study. The principal investigators of that
study were Dr. Florence Mutua and Dr. Cate Dewey. These data were collected, entered and,
partially cleaned prior to Natalie Carter working on the project. Natalie Carter completed
additional data cleaning and coding as necessary. Dr. Mutua also oversaw the collection of
ingredient weights and prices used in Chapter 4.
Karen Richardson gathered relevant literature for chapters 1 through 7, assisted with the
revision of Chapter 4 from the version presented here to an abbreviated version submitted for
publication, procured feed trial supplies, entered, cleaned, and validated feed trial data including
verifying tables prior to publication.
Dr. Judi Bell provided editorial comments for Chapter 2 prior to its submission for
publication.
Dr. Hector Martinez provided technical assistance in managing feed related data and
populating ration formulation program for use in Chapter 3 and 4.
The Canadian International Development Agency through a Students for Development
Internship, the Ontario Veterinary College (OVC), and the International Livestock Research
Institute, Nairobi and Busia Laboratory (ILRI) provided financial support and assistance for
sampling of feedstuffs presented in Chapter 3. The Ontario Agricultural College (OAC) provided
funding for the proximate nutrient analysis of those feedstuffs, travel costs, and Natalie’s stipend.
Dr. Lian Thomas determined time and distance of pigs walking, and provided a first draft
of the methods she used, for Chapter 4. International Fund for Agricultural Development and
European Union funded ILRI Smallholder Pig Value Chain Development Project, and CGIAR
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Research Program (CRP) 3.7, and CRP 4.3 provided financial support for the Uganda nutrient
analysis sample collection, proximate nutrient analysis, feed trial, and feed trial sample
proximate nutrient analysis, Natalie’s stipend for 24 months, and housing cost for 21 months, as
well as transportation costs.
Natalie Carter completed data analysis for all chapters in Statistix (Chapter 2), Excel
(Chapters 3-5), STATA (Chapter 6 and 7), with the help of Drs. Cate Dewey, and Dr. Kees de
Lange. Drs. Delia Grace and Ben Lukuyu provided feedback on analysis plans and progress and
manuscript editing. Drs. Delia Grace, Ben Lukuyu, Danilo Pezo, Jane Poole, Cate Dewey, and
Ian Dohoo provided feedback on feed trial planning and sample size calculations.
Dr. Kees de Lange modified the NRC 2012 growing-finishing pig model from a dynamic
to a static model, and modified the ration formulation program used by Skinner et al 2012 so that
both could be used for the pigs and ingredients used in this project.
Dr. Cuilan Zhu performed the Least Square Means analysis for Appendix III using the
SAS statistical software program.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Study area - Western Province, Kenya and Central Region Uganda .................................... 1
1.1.1 Pig population and pork consumption ...................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Poverty ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Smallholder pig production ................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Local, indigenous, and cross breed pigs ................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Pig growth performance and feed conversion efficiency in the tropics .................... 5
1.3 Farmer access/challenges ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Pig feeding............................................................................................................................. 7
1.4.1 Purchased feedstuffs ................................................................................................. 8
1.4.2 Zero-cost feedstuffs .................................................................................................. 8
1.4.3 Seasonal availability ................................................................................................. 9
1.4.4 Locally available feedstuffs for pigs in other parts of the tropics............................. 9
1.4.5 Silage for pigs in other parts of the tropics ............................................................. 11
1.5 Pig nutrient requirements .................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Study rationale..................................................................................................................... 13
1.7 Research objectives ............................................................................................................. 14
1.8 References ........................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................... 24
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................ 25
2.2.1 Data collection ........................................................................................................ 26
2.2.2 Statistical analysis and model building ................................................................... 28
2.3 Results ................................................................................................................................. 29
2.3.1 Peri-urban district.................................................................................................... 29
2.3.2 Rural district............................................................................................................ 29
2.3.3 Across districts ........................................................................................................ 30
2.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 31
2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 33
2.6 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 34
2.7 References ........................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................... 41
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