U N I V E R S I T À D E G L I STUDI DI P AVIA , F A C O L T À DI IN G E G N E R I A D O T T O R A T O DI R I C E R C A IN IN G E G N E R I A EL E T T R O N I C A, IN F OR MA T IC A E D EL E T T R I C A C I C L O XX ( 2 0 0 4‐ 2007) EENNHHAANNCCEEDD MMOODDEELLIINNGG AANNDD DDEESSIIGGNN OOFF GGRROOUUNNDD SSTTAATTIIOONN AANNTTEENNNNAASS FFOORR SSPPAACCEE AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS D O C T O R A L T H E S I S O F M A R C O F O R M A G G I T U T O R : P R O F E S S O R L U C A P E R R E G R I N I (cid:72) 2 0 0 7(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Table of Contents T C ABLE OF ONTENTS FOREWORD.......................................................................................................................................................6 PREFACE............................................................................................................................................................7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................................................................................................................8 1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................9 1.1. Beam‐Waveguide Antennas...................................................................................................13 1.1.1. Beam‐Waveguide Antennas Evolution.................................................................................17 1.1.2. Analysis Techniques: a Brief Overview...............................................................................20 1.2. ESA and the ESTRAK Network.............................................................................................22 2. DUAL REFLECTOR SHAPING....................................................................................................25 2.1. Introduction to the Cassegrain and Gregorian Concept....................................................25 2.2. Motivations for Shaping..........................................................................................................27 2.3. Analytical Formulation...........................................................................................................29 2.3.1. First Step....................................................................................................................................30 2.3.2. Second Step...............................................................................................................................32 2.4. Test Case: ESA DSA3..............................................................................................................35 3. BEAM‐WAVEGUIDE DESIGN TECHNIQUES............................................................................43 3.1. Geometrical Optics Design: Mizusawa’s Criteria and Focal Plane Matching................43 3.2. Quasioptical Design: the Gaussian Beam Approach.........................................................46 3.2.1. Analytical Formulation...........................................................................................................48 3.3. Test Case: ESA DSA3..............................................................................................................54 3.3.1. X/X/K‐Band Feed Layout........................................................................................................56 3.3.2. K/Ka‐Band Feed Layout..........................................................................................................65 3.3.3. Antenna Efficiency Comparison............................................................................................73 4. DICHROIC MIRRORS................................................................................................................77 4.1. Introduction to Frequency Selective Surfaces......................................................................77 4.2. Manufacturing Techniques Overview..................................................................................81 4.3. Overview of the MoM/BI‐RME Analysis Method...............................................................84 4.4. The Plane Wave Synthesis and Analysis Approach...........................................................85 4.4.1. Test Case: DSA1 S/X/Ka‐band Dichroic...............................................................................86 4.5. The Multiple Plane Wave Synthesis and Analysis Approach...........................................91 4.5.1. Test Case: Analysis of the DSA1 S/X/Ka‐Band Dichroic...................................................94 4.5.2. Test Case: Optimization of the DSA1 S/X/Ka‐Band Dichroic.........................................103 4.5.3. Test Case: Design of the DSA1 S/X/Ka‐Band Dichroic with Hexagonal Holes............113 4.5.4. Test Cases Comparison.........................................................................................................123 4.6. The Spectral Analysis Approach: a Brief Introduction....................................................124 4.6.1. Test Case: Analysis of the DSA1 S/X/Ka‐Band Dichroic.................................................125 (cid:72)4(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Table of Contents 5. THE FEED SYSTEM...................................................................................................................127 5.1. Feed System Layout...............................................................................................................127 5.1.1. The Uplink Signal Path.........................................................................................................128 5.1.2. The Downlink Signal Path....................................................................................................128 5.2. The Orthomode Transducer.................................................................................................131 5.2.1. Test Case: Ku‐Band Wideband OMT.................................................................................132 5.2.2. Test Case: K‐band OMT.......................................................................................................138 5.3. The Rotating Joint..................................................................................................................141 5.3.1. Test Case: K‐Band Rotating Joint........................................................................................141 5.4. The Polarizer...........................................................................................................................142 5.4.1. Test Case: K‐band Corrugated Polarizer...........................................................................144 5.5. The Tracking Coupler............................................................................................................146 5.5.1. Test Case: K‐Band Multihole Coupler...............................................................................150 5.6. Diplexers and Filters..............................................................................................................153 5.6.1. Test Case: Ka‐band Stub Filter............................................................................................155 5.6.2. Test Case: Ka‐band Diplexer...............................................................................................156 5.7. The Conical Corrugated Horn..............................................................................................159 5.7.1. Test Case: X/X/K Multiple Band Horn...............................................................................160 6. DEEP SPACE ANTENNA OPERATIONAL MODES..................................................................169 6.1. Program Tracking, Conical Scan and Autotracking.........................................................169 6.1.1. Program Tracking..................................................................................................................169 6.1.2. Conical Scan............................................................................................................................171 6.1.3. Autotracking...........................................................................................................................172 6.2. Beam Aberration Correction Technique.............................................................................174 6.2.1. The Beam Aberration Effect..................................................................................................174 6.2.2. Theoretical Formulation........................................................................................................176 6.2.3. Test Case: DSA2 Algorithm.................................................................................................179 6.3. High Performance Conical Scan and Fast Autotracking..................................................184 6.3.1. Theoretical Formulation........................................................................................................185 6.3.2. Test Case: DSA2 Algorithm.................................................................................................185 7. CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................................189 APPENDIX A: XPD FORMULATION............................................................................................................192 APPENDIX B: GRATING LOBES LOSSES.......................................................................................................192 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................195 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................196 PERSONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................................200 (cid:72)5(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Foreword F OREWORD Dear Reader, What you are about to read covers the most relevant and interesting topics I worked on since I approached the microwave field as a trainee of the European Space Agency, in 2002. In writing this dissertation, it has been my intention to avoid lingering on tedious mathematical formulations, yet I tried to provide the basic argumentations necessary to understand the physics and the principles of operation of the components described. After all, I believe microwave engineering to be an art, and, although firmly tied up to the physical nature of microwaves, it should never be approached without imagination, creativity, and curiosity. For those readers who are interested in an in‐depth theoretical background, I cited throughout this work several references to the many books and scientific articles I came across and appreciated in these years. Besides being a Ph.D. thesis, this dissertation is intended to provide guidelines and references to whoever wants to approach the wonderful world of ground station antennas for space applications. Together with the major design guidelines I gathered from the literature or developed myself according to my personal experience, I tried to focus on the practical implementation and manufacturing aspects that I came across in the industry. I also tried to deliver a pleasant graphical appearance, by including many photographs, pictures, and schematics, to ease the understanding of the topics covered, and to make my work more appealing. Having said that, I am aware that this work, although being an important goal to me, it is surely not the end, but it will hopefully be just the beginning. Nevertheless, I hope all readers will enjoy reading and browsing through this thesis, and I would be extremely glad if these pages would be of some help in designing new ground station antennas, that perhaps some day could allow for expanding our knowledge of what is beyond the blue sky above our heads. Yours Sincerely, Marco Formaggi (cid:72)6(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Preface and Acknowledgements P REFACE This thesis gathers the most significant achievements of its author in the antenna field. Although based on previously published theories, each chapter presents elements of novelty, either in the theoretical approach, which has been followed, or in the application of known methods to new, challenging projects. Many of the most relevant achievements have been the object of the scientific publications reported in the Personal Bibliography section, and most of the results hereafter reported have been achieved in the frame of two ESA studies, which involved the author as an active, key element of the two teams. Both studies have been carried out in collaboration with European industries active in the space field. In particular, the “Study on the use of the 25.5 ÷ 27 GHz band in ESA ground stations” [1] has been managed by Callisto Space Ltd., also in charge of mission analysis and low noise amplifiers and downconverters design, and it has been performed together with Zelinda Ltd., responsible for the demodulator design; Makalumedia GmbH, responsible for the data communications design; ERA Technology Ltd., responsible of the detailed design and analysis of the feed systems; and with the Microwave Laboratory of the University of Pavia, responsible for the antenna optics design and analysis, the dichroic mirrors design and analysis, and the preliminary feeds design. The author of this work has actively worked as a member of both the University of Pavia and of the ERA Technology Ltd. teams, having spent a six months period at ERA premises, in the frame of his last Ph.D. year. The other study, “Two layer servo concept with movable BWG mirrors” [2], on the other hand, has been managed by ADS International S.r.l., prime contractor in charge of servo and mechanical implementations, and the author of this work has been responsible for the retrieval of the algorithms required to cope with the radio frequency (RF) specifications, within the team of the Microwave Laboratory of the University of Pavia. The text is organized into seven chapters that are intended to guide the reader through a virtual tour of a ground station antenna from its dual reflector down to its feed system and into its main operational modes. After a brief historical introduction emphasizing the milestones that posed the basis for space exploration, a section is devoted to describing the main features of the most advanced antenna systems allowing us to bridging the gap between Earth and our satellites and interplanetary probes: beam‐waveguide antennas. Chapter 2 describes the principles of operation of dual reflector antennas, motivating the need for modifying the analytical reflectors towards shaped configurations that allow for improving the overall performance. To this aim a theoretical approach is described in detail, and a test case dealing with ESA Deep‐Space Antenna 3 (DSA3) is reported, underlining the results achievable with the dual reflector shaping computer program written by the author of this thesis. Considering the antenna in reception, the signal collected by the dual reflector system propagates into the beam‐waveguide (BWG) system, which is the topic treated in Chapter 3. In particular, the chapter covers the main beam‐waveguide design techniques, and describes the Gaussian beam approach, which has been implemented in a computer code that has been used in the frame of the “Study on the use of the 25.5 ÷ 27 GHz band in ESA ground stations” [1], and whose most interesting results are reported in the test case section. Some of the most relevant elements of beam‐waveguide antennas: dichroic mirrors, are described in Chapter 4, which deals with the traditional design approach, and with the novel methodologies allowing for improved performance that have been studied by the author throughout his Ph.D. studies, and are objects of many of his publications. Chapter 5 is devoted to yet another key (cid:72)7(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Preface and Acknowledgements element of beam‐waveguide antennas: the feed system, which is the actual heart of every ground station, as it generates and receives the beams carrying the signals that will travel or have traveled through space. After a description of a complete feed chain, a specific section is devoted within the chapter to describing the basic theoretical background and to providing some design guidelines for the most relevant components. Many test cases are as well reported, most of which have been designed in the frame of the “Study on the use of the 25.5 ÷ 27 GHz band in ESA ground stations” [1]. After a description of the main antenna components, Chapter 6 describes the main deep‐space antenna operational modes, and it presents some of the results of the ESA study “Two layer servo concept with movable BWG mirrors” [2], primarily aimed to separating the Ka‐band up and downlink beams, in order to compensate the beam aberration effect arising when tracking probes travel with a non‐zero transversal velocity component. The last chapter, Chapter 7 reviews the path followed by the author of this thesis, and highlights the most relevant results obtained. A CKNOWLEDGMENTS First of all I would like to thank my tutor, Professor Luca Perregrini for his guidance, support, tuition, and friendship, and Professor Maurizio Bozzi for his helpful suggestions and useful discussions. It is thanks to them if I had the chance to come in touch with the wonderful world of microwaves, back in 2002, when they offered me the opportunity of spending a traineeship period at the European Space Agency in Darmstadt, Germany. A very special thank goes to Dr. Piermario Besso of ESA/ESOC, former boss and current friend, who transferred to me his love for ground station antennas, and granted me the wonderful opportunity to work as an external contractor on two ESA studies. Thanks to my friend Dr. Peter Droll and to Dr. Udo Kugel of ESA/ESOC for the interesting and fruitful discussions on the movable mirrors study. Many thanks to Dr. Steve Rawson head of Callisto Space Ltd., my former employer who helped me a lot during the last years, not only from a technical point of view. A special thank goes also to Dr. Glafkos Philippou, my waveguide components mentor, who gave me the opportunity of spending six months at ERA Technology Ltd., and to all the ERA crew, and in particular Dr. Barry Driscoll, Dr. Youssef Kalatizadeh, Dr. Dean Kemp, Dr. Michael Philippakis, my desk neighbour Mrs. Jan Millson, and last but not least, the head of the antenna section, Dr. Robert Pearson. I also wish to thank Dr. Daniele Gallieni, head of ADS International S.r.l. and Mr. Pierluigi Fumi, also of ADS International S.r.l., for their friendship, for the excellent work we have done together, and for their support during the movable mirrors study. Much appreciation also goes to all TICRA employees for their support and suggestions about GRASP, not only throughout this thesis, but since 2002. I also wish to thank Dr. Roberto Vallauri and Dr. Davide Savini of TiLab, for providing experimental data on the DSA1 M4 dichroic mirror. Finally I cannot avoid mentioning all the friends of the Microwave Laboratory: Dr. Simone Germani who is now working in Germany, as his last name always suggested, Dr. Marco Pasian who cheered up my days at the lab with his foolishness, Dr. Gaia Cevini, Dr. Maria Montagna, and the former, but not forgotten Ms. degree students and good friends, Mr. Paolo Benetti and Mr. Alessio Sidoli. A special thank also goes to my “English” friends, Dr. Mark Brenchley and Dr. Riccardo Sabatino, for the many pub nights we spent together. Last but not least, a big thank to my best friends Federico Arnaud and Sergio Fabbri, just for being my friends. I would have finally thanked Chiara for enduring countless hours of neglect during the preparation of this thesis, but alas, she did not endure long enough. ;‐) (cid:72)8(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1 1.I NTRODUCTION Electricity and magnetism have been known by mankind for thousands of years, since the Greek mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered them, rubbing amber with silk and studying the rocks of the Greek city Magnesia. It was however not until 1873, more than two thousand years later, that Professor James Clerk Maxwell established in a profound and elegant manner the interdependence of the two physical phenomena, thus creating the basis for modern electromagnetism. The existence of the electromagnetic waves postulated by Professor James Clerk Maxwell was scientifically demonstrated with physical evidence a few years later, in 1887 by Professor Heinrich Hertz, who assembled, in the Technical Institute of Karlsruhe, Germany the first radio system, employing a loaded half‐wavelength dipole as transmitting antenna, and a resonant square loop as receiver. Professor Hertz observed how sparks generated in the gap at the center of the dipole also occurred in a gap in the nearby loop, and proved the wave nature of the electromagnetic field, by moving his receiver around his laboratory, thus mapping “spark areas” and “dead‐spot areas”. Since then, short dipoles and radio waves were then named after him, in his honor “Hertzian dipoles,” and “Hertzian waves”. Although widely regarded as the father of radio, Professor Heinrich Hertz never really used his invention for transmitting information, and his apparatus remained nothing more than a laboratory oddity for nearly a decade. The first demonstration that Hertzian waves could be used to convey signals through space was made by the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi. Son of an Irish mother and an Italian father, young Marconi became interested in Hertzian waves while he was still in his teens, and he soon became convinced that they could be put in practical use. He eventually set up a wireless telegraph in his father’s garden near Bologna, and improved and tuned his system, adding larger antennas for longer wavelengths, to allow for communicating over larger distances. In 1901, he amazed the world, when he announced that he was able to receive radio signals that had been sent all the way across the Atlantic ocean, from a fan aerial supported by two 60 m poles he had built at Poldhu in Cornwall, England, to St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, where he pulled up a 200 m wire with a kite, working it against an array of wires on the ground. Two years later, in 1903, Marconi began a regular transatlantic message service between England, Nova Scotia, and Cape Cod. Contemporaneously, an obscure Russian schoolteacher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, had become convinced that rockets could be used to propel space vehicles, and published many articles between 1903 and 1911 accounting his theories. The first scientist to devote his research to rocket development with the aim of “reaching extreme altitudes,” however, was the American professor Robert Hutchings Goddard, “the father of modern rocketry”. After many years spent studying his mathematical theories of rocket flight, in 1926, Professor Goddard was finally able to build and launch the first liquid propelled rocket of history (Figure 1.1), thus taking to another level the gunpowder propelled devices used by the Chinese for warfare and firework display as early as the thirteenth century A.D.. (cid:72)9(cid:73) Enhanced Modeling and Design of Ground Station Antennas for Space Applications Chapter 1: Introduction Figure 1.1: Professor Robert Hutchings Goddard with his liquid propelled rocket. Since then, antenna and rocket technology evolved at a steady pace, until the Second World War boosted the development of both microwave devices and missiles, which became an urgent matter, thus posing the basis for space communications. Both sides developed advanced and powerful radar systems, and a photograph of a unit of the Würzburg‐Riese radar system near Frankfurt, the backbone of the German air‐support radar system on the ground, providing data for height, range, and bearing of Allied airplanes is shown as an example in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2: Würzburg‐Riese radar system. In 1942, in the middle of the war, Dr. Wernher Von Braun and the Peenemünde rocket group succeeded launching the first prototype of the massive “Weapon of Vengeance” rocket, also known as Vergeltungswaffe 2 or simply V‐2 (Figure 1.3). After the war, Von Braun surrendered to the Americans and was given the opportunity of continuing his rocket experiments under the (cid:72)10(cid:73)
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