English Linguistics: Essentials

307 Pages·2020·5.617 MB·English

by  Bernd Kortmann

Bernd Kortmann
English Linguistics
Essentials
2nd edition
With
online materials

Bernd Kortmann
English Linguistics
Essentials
2ndrevised,updatedandenlargededition
J.B. Metzler Verlag
Theauthor
BerndKortmannisProfessorofEnglishLanguageandLinguisticsattheUniver-
sityofFreiburg,Germany,and,since2013,ExecutiveDirectorofFRIAS(Freiburg
InstituteforAdvancedStudies).Hehasbeenlong-timeeditorofthetwointerna-
tionalbookseriesTopicsinEnglishLinguisticsandDialectsofEnglishaswellas
journaleditorofEnglishLanguageandLinguistics.
ISBN978-3-476-05677-1
ISBN978-3-476-05678-8(eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05678-8
DieDeutscheNationalbibliothekverzeichnetdiesePublikationinderDeutschen
Nationalbibliografie;detailliertebibliografischeDatensindimInternetüber
http://dnb.d-nb.deabrufbar.
J.B.Metzler
©Springer-VerlagGmbHDeutschland,einTeilvonSpringerNature,2020
DasWerkeinschließlichallerseinerTeileisturheberrechtlichgeschützt.JedeVer-
wertung,dienichtausdrücklichvomUrheberrechtsgesetzzugelassenist,bedarf
dervorherigenZustimmungdesVerlags.DasgiltinsbesonderefürVer-
vielfältigungen,Bearbeitungen,Übersetzungen,MikroverfilmungenunddieEin-
speicherungundVerarbeitunginelektronischenSystemen.
DieWiedergabevonallgemeinbeschreibendenBezeichnungen,Marken,Unter-
nehmensnamenetc.indiesemWerkbedeutetnicht,dassdiesefreidurch
jedermannbenutztwerdendürfen.DieBerechtigungzurBenutzungunterliegt,
auchohnegesondertenHinweishierzu,denRegelndesMarkenrechts.DieRechte
desjeweiligenZeicheninhaberssindzubeachten.
DerVerlag,dieAutorenunddieHerausgebergehendavonaus,dassdieAngaben
undInformationenindiesemWerkzumZeitpunktderVeröffentlichungvoll-
ständigundkorrektsind.WederderVerlag,nochdieAutorenoderdieHeraus-
geberübernehmen,ausdrücklichoderimplizit,GewährfürdenInhaltdes
Werkes,etwaigeFehleroderÄußerungen.DerVerlagbleibtimHinblickaufgeo-
grafischeZuordnungenundGebietsbezeichnungeninveröffentlichtenKartenund
Institutionsadressenneutral.
Umschlagabbildung:iStock
J.B.MetzleristeinImprintdereingetragenenGesellschaftSpringer-Verlag
GmbH,DEundisteinTeilvonSpringerNature
DieAnschriftderGesellschaftist:HeidelbergerPlatz3,14197Berlin,Germany
Contents
Preface ................................................................................ VII
1 Linguistics:Majorconceptsandresearchtraditions............... 1
1.1 Settingthescene ............................................................ 1
1.2 Centraldichotomies........................................................ 3
1.3 Threemajorresearchtraditionsin20thcenturylinguistics .... 4
1.3.1 Structuralism ........................................................ 5
1.3.2 Formalism/Generativelinguistics............................ 9
1.3.3 Functionalism ....................................................... 11
2 Phoneticsandphonology:Onsoundsandsoundsystems....... 27
2.1 Phonetics...................................................................... 28
2.1.1 Transcription ........................................................ 28
2.1.2 Speechorgans....................................................... 30
2.1.3 Typesofsounds .................................................... 32
2.2 Phonology..................................................................... 37
2.2.1 Ondeterminingthephonemeinventory:Segmental
phonology............................................................ 37
2.2.2 Prosody:Supra-segmentalphonology ....................... 40
2.2.3 Phonologicalprocessesinconnectedspeech .............. 44
3 Morphology:Onthestructureandformationofwords .......... 51
3.1 Typesofmorphemes....................................................... 52
3.2 Morphophonemics:Interfaceofmorphologyandphonology.. 55
3.3 Wordformationprocesses................................................ 60
3.3.1 Derivation ........................................................... 61
3.3.2 Compounding ....................................................... 63
3.3.3 Conversion........................................................... 67
3.3.4 Shortenings .......................................................... 69
4 Grammar:ThegroundplanofEnglish................................. 79
4.1 Inflectionalmorphology................................................... 80
4.2 Syntax:Buildingblocksandsentencepatterns .................... 86
4.2.1 Partsofspeech...................................................... 87
4.2.2 Phrasesandclauses ............................................... 89
4.2.3 Grammaticalrelations ............................................ 91
4.3 TheEnglishverbphrase .................................................. 96
4.3.1 Verbtypes ............................................................ 97
4.3.2 Tense................................................................... 101
4.3.3 Aspect ................................................................. 103
V
Contents
5 ContrastiveLinguistics:EnglishandGerman ........................ 113
5.1 ContrastiveLinguistics .................................................... 113
5.2 ThemoststrikinggrammaticaldifferencesbetweenEnglish
andGerman .................................................................. 118
5.2.1 Morphology.......................................................... 119
5.2.2 Wordorder........................................................... 121
5.2.3 Form-functionmappings......................................... 128
5.2.4 Furtherdifferencesintheverbphrase ....................... 132
5.3 Phonologicaldifferences.................................................. 135
6 Semantics:Wordandsentencemeaning............................. 143
6.1 Branchesandboundariesofsemantics............................... 143
6.2 Typesandfacetsofmeaning............................................. 145
6.3 Structuralsemantics:Meaningstructuresinthevocabulary... 149
6.3.1 Lexicalfields......................................................... 149
6.3.2 Senserelations...................................................... 151
6.3.3 Lexicalambiguity:Polysemyandhomonymy ............. 155
6.4 Cognitivesemantics:Prototypesandmetaphors................... 158
6.4.1 Prototypes............................................................ 158
6.4.2 Metaphors............................................................ 161
7 Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontext....................... 173
7.1 Competingdefinitions:Perspectiveorcomponent?............... 173
7.2 Deixis........................................................................... 175
7.3 Speechacts ................................................................... 179
7.3.1 Classificationofillocutionaryacts ............................ 180
7.3.2 Felicityconditions.................................................. 182
7.3.3 Indirectspeechacts ............................................... 182
7.4 Conversationalimplicatures ............................................. 183
7.4.1 TheoriginaltheorybyGrice.................................... 183
7.4.2 Post-Griceanmodels............................................... 189
8 Sociolinguistics:RegionalandsocialvarietiesofEnglish......... 201
8.1 Differenttypesofvarieties ............................................... 202
8.2 BritishandAmericanEnglish:Acomparison....................... 207
8.3 Regionalvarieties ........................................................... 213
8.3.1 Traditionalandmoderndialectology ......................... 213
8.3.2 SyntacticvariationintheBritishIsles........................ 218
8.4 Socialvarieties............................................................... 220
8.5 Feministlinguistics ........................................................ 228
8.6 Sociolinguisticsandlanguagechange................................. 233
9 Turnsandtrendsin21stcenturylinguistics ......................... 241
9.1 Thequantitativeturn ...................................................... 244
9.1.1 Corpuslinguistics .................................................. 244
VI
Contents
9.2 Theusage-basedturn...................................................... 250
9.2.1 Usage-basedlinguistics........................................... 250
9.2.2 Theconstruction(al)istturn:ConstructionGrammar.... 252
9.3 ThetypologicalturninWorldEnglishesresearch................. 256
9.3.1 Typologicalprofilesacrosstheanglophoneworld........ 259
9.3.2 Angloversals,varioversals,areoversals ...................... 260
9.3.3 Generalizationsfromatypologicalperspective ........... 266
9.4 Thehistoricalturn.......................................................... 269
10 Generalreferenceworks .................................................. 287
11 Onlineresourcesandappetizers ........................................ 291
12 Index............................................................................ 295
VII
Preface
Newedition:Thisisthecompletelyrevised,updatedandenlargedsecond
edition of English Linguistics: Essentials, first published in 2005 (by a
differentpublisher)andreprintedmanytimessincethen.After15years,
such a major overhaul was clearly called for. Major and minor changes
havebeenmadeinallchapters,andyetanyonewhohasworkedwiththe
firstversionwillrecognizemuchthatisfamiliar–simplybetter!Newis
Chapter9onturnsandtrendsin21stcentury(English)linguistics.
Thenatureandaims of this book have not changed. Its primary aim
still is to introduce undergraduate and graduate students to the central
branches,coreconcepts,andcurrenttrendsinthestudyoftheEnglish
languageandlinguistics,givingasmuchguidanceaspossible(alsoby
visual devices). The individual chapters have been designed to serve a
dualpurpose:ontheonehand,asanintroductiontoagivenbranchof
linguistics and as a point of departure for more detailed studies on the
basisof,forexample,specializedtextbooksorhandbookarticlesand,on
theotherhand,asapointofreferencetoreturntoinordertocheckthe
wealth of knowledge acquired in the meantime against the information
giveninthebook.
English Linguistics:Essentials has grown out of 35 years of teaching
experience with students of English linguistics at all levels. It has done
quite a number of student generations good service as a companion all
through their academic studies – and I am more than grateful to all
thosestudentreaderswhogotbacktomeovertheyearsaskingquestions
or pointing out things that are not sufficiently clear. I’ve enjoyed these
mailexchanges,orconversationsatmyowninstitution,andlearntalot
from these questions and suggestions. In working on this new edition, I
have made every effort to build on them, with the aim of leaving future
generations of readers more enlightened when reading the relevant pas-
sages.
AtmanyEnglishdepartmentsinGermany,EnglishLinguistics:Essen-
tialsservesasastandardtextbookinintroductoryclassestolinguistics.
Advancedundergraduates,too,especiallythoseapproachingtheirexams
in linguistics, and graduates enrolled in Masters programmes in linguis-
tics as well as student tutors and teaching assistants have found (and, I
promise,willcontinuetofind)thisbookequallyhelpful.
Whythisbookhasappealedtomanyreaders:Thebookoffersaread-
er-friendly layout with many mnemonic devices in the text, and a large
numberofsurveyfiguresandtablessummarizingandputtinginperspec-
tivethemostimportantpoints.Attheendofeachchapterthereaderwill
find checklists with key terms, exercises for revision and questions for
furtherstudy,followedbyafurtherreadingsection.Inthisnewedition,
wehavetriedtokeepallthesethingsandevenimproveonsomeofthem.
Theexercisesandstudyquestions,whichareextremelyusefulforself-
study, have largely been replaced with new ones but, most importantly,
exercisesandanswersforALLofthem(includingtheadvancedexercises)
IX
Preface
aregivenontheaccompanyingwebsite.Thiswebsitealsoofferslinksto
some of the most interesting online resources for anyone interested in
exploringtherichworldoftheEnglishlanguageand(English)linguistics
(corpora, databases, sound archives, electronic atlases, podcasts, apps,
etc.).
Structure:Giventhemostencouragingfeedbackfrommanycolleagues
and student readers over the years, there was no reason to change any-
thingsubstantialasregardstheoverallapproach(largelytheory-neutral,
butfunctionalistinspirit),theselectionoftopicsaddressedinthebook,
itsoverallstructure,thestructureoftheindividualchapters,thestyle,or
the layout. In six chapters, the core branches of linguistics are addres-
sed: phonetics and phonology (chapter 2), morphology (chapter 3),
grammar(chapter4),semantics(chapter6),pragmatics(chapter7),and
sociolinguistics(chapter8).Chapter5isspecificallyconcernedwiththe
structureofEnglishfromacontrastive(English-German)andtypologi-
cal perspective. This chapter can be read profitably even by readers
whoseknowledgeofGermanisrudimentaryornon-existentsinceitpla-
cescontrastivelinguisticsinthecontextofotherbranchesofcomparative
linguisticsand,adoptingaspecificallytypologicalperspective,discusses
bundles of distinctive structural properties of English not addressed
elsewhere in the book. The only chapter that has undergone a major
change in this second edition is the shortened chapter 1, which is now
exclusively geared to introducing the reader to the major dichotomies
and research traditions of 20th century linguistics (structuralism, for-
malism,functionalism).Newischapter9,whichsimultaneouslyserves
asanoutlookandasanappetizerfortherichworldofEnglishlinguistics
beyondtheessentialcoreofthediscipline.Itputsthespotlightonturns
and major 21st century trends in the development of novel theories,
methodologies,researchquestions,andoverallresearchparadigms.
Howtoreadthisbook:Inprinciple,theindividualchapterscanberead
independentlyofeachother.Also,itdoesnotmatterwhetherinagiven
introductory linguistics class a bottom-up approach is chosen (from
soundsandsoundstructuretodiscourseandlanguagevariation)oratop-
downapproach.However,fortheindividualstructurallevelsofEnglishit
will be most useful to follow the order of the chapters in the book, i.e.
phonetics (2.1) preceding phonology (2.2), morphology (3) preceding
grammar (4), English grammar (4) preceding English structure from a
comparative and contrastive English-German perspective (5), semantics
(6)precedingpragmatics(7),andtheaccountsgivenofthesoundstruc-
tureandgrammarofEnglish(2and4)precedingaccountsof(especially
non-standard)varietiesofEnglishinthechaptersonsociolinguistics(8)
and World Englishes research (9.3). This book is concerned with ac-
countsofpresent-dayEnglish,onlyinchapter9.4willwetakealookat
modernhistorical(English)linguisticsasdevelopedoverthepasttwoor
threedecades.
Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank all those many
colleagues, student readers and participants of his own classes for their
feedback over the years on the individual formulations, exercises, and
solutions in the first edition. Many thanks, too, to all those friends and
X
Preface
former Freiburgers who gave highly useful input in the planning and
writingstageofthisedition(includingDaniela,Lieselotte,Nuria,Marten,
the two Christians and, with a word of special thanks, Ekkehard)! Most
importantly,however,thepresentbookwouldnothavecomeaboutwith-
outthesupportofthemembersofmyfabulousteam.Everysinglepara-
graphinthisbookhasbeengivenaclosereadbyseveralofthebrightest
peopleinEnglishlinguistics,andIhaveprofitedfromeverysingleoneof
theirquestions,criticalcommentsand,generally,extremelyhelpfulsug-
gestions on every chapter in its various stages. Many an argument has
been sharpened, many formulations have been polished several times
overafterintensivediscussionswithoneormoreofthem.Theyhavealso
worked hard on individual figures, tables, and the exercises and their
solutions. A thousand heartfelt thanks go to Alice Blumenthal-Dramé,
Beke Hansen, Verena Haser, Anna Rosen, Katharina Ehret, Yinchun Bai
and,especiallyforthefinalstylisticediting,KylaMcConnell!Withoutthe
helpofthisdedicatedandhighlycompetentteam,completedbyMelitta
Cocan,mynext-doorcompanioninthesecretary’sofficeforunbelievable
25years,itwouldhavebeensimplyimpossibletokeepthedeadlinefor
the submission of the manuscript. It is immensely reassuring to have
such knowledgeable, competent, critical, perceptive, inventive, efficient,
supportingand,notleast,alwayscheerfulreadersrightnextdoor!Every
singleoneofthemandtheotherpeoplementionedabovehascontributed
tomakingthisabetterbook.Foranyremainingshortcomingstheauthor
alone takes full responsibility. At the same time, all readers are encour-
aged and warmly invited to contact the author if they have questions,
criticalcomments,orsuggestions.
Dedication:Even15yearsafterthefirsttimeIformulatedthisdedica-
tion, I see no reason to change a single word, just one number (guess
which!). In the writing and production stage of this book (and others
before), I have been extremely privileged to have had the support of a
wonderfulteamconsistingofassistantprofessors,postdoctoral,doctoral
andgraduatestudents–toppedbythebestsecretaryofall,MelittaCocan!
LookingbackonaquartercenturythatIhavenowheldachairinEnglish
languageandlinguisticsattheUniversityofFreiburg,IcansaythatIhave
beentrulyblessedinthisrespect.Itistothecurrentandformermembers
ofthismarvellousteamthatIwouldliketodedicatethisbook–theyare
therealessentialsinmyprofessionallife!
XI