English for Academic purposes: A Guide for Post Graduate Students

293 Pages·2009·1.4 MB·English

Федеральное агентство по образованию
Федеральное государственное образоsameльное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«Сибирский федеральный университет»

Елина Е.Н., Пол Дж. Тиббенхем, Е.В. Озерская

English for Academic purposes:
A Guide for Post Graduate Students

Красноярск
2007
Ответственный редактор: Пол Джон Тиббенхем
Елина Е.Н., Е.В. , Пол Джон Тиббенхем, Озерская Е.В
English for Academic purposes: A Guide for Post Graduate Students: Уч. пособие/
Сибирский федеральный университет. Красноярск, 2007. - 292 с.

В учебном пособии представлен обширный материал для подготовки к
сдаче кандидатского экзамена по английскому языку, содержащий такие
разделы, как ознакомление с английскими и британскими научными
степенями, перевод на английский язык русских научных терминов,
рекамендации по написанию научных статей, реферированию газет,
упражнения для перевода научных текстов с русского языка на английский,
тексты для аудировапия, грамматические таблицы.
Для аспирантов, научных работников и преподавателей высшей школы.

@ Е.Н. Елина
Paul Tibbenham
Е. В. Озерская
Красноярк, 2007

2
Forward

Congratulations on your decision to become a scientist or researcher. From
now on, you will be required to carry out different types of work connected to your
research. Some of these are well-known to you, such as writing articles, carrying
out experiments, or taking part in scientific conferences. However, there are some
specific activities which you need to be specially trained in, such as writing
academic essays, making reports, being able to give a brief summary or review of
articles and to translate scientific literature, etc.
A scientist needs to be able to view ordinary things from different perspective
and to pick up the unexpected and extraordinary aspects of scientific phenomena.
As Russia’s position in the world has changed, the possibility for exchanging
views with people working in the same field as you has become not just a reality,
but a necessity.
The aims of this guide are:
• to revise or remedy essential grammatical points that help postgraduates
translate authentic scientific literature from English into Russian and vice
versa;
• to provide practical advice for writing essays and reports, as well as improve
language skills for making presentations at symposia, conferences and
congresses;
• to activate target vocabulary drawn from the latest and relevant academic
materials;
• to advance aural and oral skills;
• to reconstruct and summarize main ideas;
• to take part in discussions.
Elena Elina compiled sections: I, III (Listening to Academic English), IV
(Video Segments: How About: Science and Technology), V ( Texts for Discussion),
Glossary, VI-VII Appendix Scripts, VIII (Exercises for Translation from Russian
into Englsh and Vice Versa).
Section II and Topics for discussion were provided by Elena Ozerskaya.
Paul Tibbenham revised the guide lines, the main corpus and rewrote sections of the
course.
The authors are grateful to Anthony Mills, Master of Science, University of
Oregon, USA, and Thomas Rebollini, Durham University, England for their helpful
assistance and valuable advice on the making of this guide.
Any readers' advice and suggestions will be greatly appreciated by the
authors.

We wish you every success in mastering academic English!

3
Contents

Forward 3

Section I

Unit I Possible Translations of Potentially Difficult Scientific Terms 7
from Russian into English
Unit 2 Definitions of Degree, Diploma and Certificate 15
Unit III Particular Usage of “Graduate” and “Graduation” 21
Unit IV Science; scientific methods, hypothesis, theory 23
Unit V Research 29
Unit VI English Degrees 34
Unit VII American Degrees 38
Unit VIII Thesis 44
Unit IX Theses Defense 53

Section II
Recommendations on Writening Academic Essays, Reports and Summaries,
Reading Periodicals and Participating in Discussions
Unit I Motivation for Becoming a Scientist 59
Unit II Essay Writing 61
Unit III Components of Argument and Discussion 65
Unit IV Reading and Abstracting Periodicals 74
Unit V Mapping the Development of User Constructs of Relevance Assessment
as Informed by Topicality 81

Section III
Listening to Academic English
Unit I А News Report 88
Unit II A Feature Article 94
Unit III A News Bulletin 100
Unit IV A Letter of Application 104
Unit V Language of Informal Conversation: About A Letter of Application 109
Unit VI Lecture 114

Section IV
Video Segments: How About: Science and Technology
4
Unit I Wired Hockey Players 117
Unit II Sandblasting without Sand 118
Unit III Bee Baggies 119
Unit IV Moving Continents 121
Unit V Hot Vents 122
Unit VI Mural of Time 123
Unit VII Zoo Plankton 124
Unit VIII Chinchillas and Hearing Loss 126
Unit IX Tracking the Gray Whales 128
Unit X Communicating with а Parrot 129
Unit XI Тhe March of the Spiny Lobster 130
Unit XII Permanent Teeth Implants 131
Unit XIII Cockroach on а Treadmill 133
Unit XIV The Chicken's Day 134
Unit XV Тhe Rarest Mammal 135

Section V
Texts for Discussion
21st Century Science : Where is Everybody? 136
21st Century Science : Consciousness 141
21st Century Science : Genetics Today 143
21st Century Science : Nanotechnology 146
21st Century Science : Key Concepts for the 21st Century 148
21st Century Technology: Beyond - the Kitchen of the Future 150
21st Century Technology: The worlds first hand-held printer! 152
21st Century Technology: NASA portal on it's way... 153
21st Century Technology: Mirror, mirror...what's on TV? 155
21st Century Technology: The Gauntlet 157
Globalization and Science: A Speeded-Up Virtuous Cycle 158

Topics for Discussion 163
Possible exam questions 164

Glossary:
Latin and English Equivalents; Russian–English Vocabulary 167
Appendix Scripts
Section VI
Unit I Wired Hockey Players 195
Unit II Sandblasting without Sand 196
Unit III Вее Baggies 197
Unit IV Moving Continents 198
5
Unit V Hot Vents 199
Unit VI Мuгаl of Time 200
Unit VII Zooplankton 201
VIII Chinchillas and Hearing Loss 202
Unit IX Tracking the Gгау Whales 203
Unit X Communicating with а Parrot 204
Unit XI The March of the Spiny Lobster 205
Unit XII Permanent Teeth Implants 206
Unit XIII The Chicken’s Day 207
Unit XIV The Rarest Mammal 208

Section VII
Unit I А News Report 209
Unit II А Feature Article 211
Unit III А News Bulletin 213
Unit IV А Letter of Application 215
Unit V А Letter of Application 217
Unit VI The Language of Informal Conversation: about А Lecture 219

Section VIII
Exercises for Translation from Russian into Englsh and Vice Versa 221
Bibliography 285

6
Section I

Unit I
Possible Translations of Potentially Difficult Scientific Terms
from Russian into English

Диплом
(First) degree or undergraduate degree are usually the most appropriate
translations for the Russian диплом awarded after five year's specialised study at an
institution of higher education. The use of diploma implies a shorter course, or one
of a lower academic standard.
First or undergraduate should be included when it is necessary to distinguish
this degree (= диплом) from a higher degree (ученая степень).
e. g. - I've only got a first/undergraduate degree.
Дипломная работа can be problematic to translate into English, because
there is nothing of this kind in many higher educational establishments in England:
in order to graduate, students only have to pass the necessary examinations. In some
institutions, however, mainly newer ones, students also have to write a dissertation,
that is a long piece of research work based on independent study or investigation,
and this practice seems to be more and more wide-spread. Dissertation can
therefore be used as a translation of дипломная работа. The SOED defines
dissertation as "a discourse, a spoken or written treatment of a subject at length". In
American English, however, dissertation is a work submitted for a doctoral or
Masters degree. The only other solution seems to be some descriptive expression
with graduation, for example, graduation paper/research work, although these
are not set expressions.
Дипломный проект can be translated as graduation project. Remember,
however, that this is also not a set expression and that project has a wider use in
modern English.
защита дипломной работы / дипломного проекта
Even in some institutions where students write a dissertation, there is may not be an
occasion corresponding to the Russian защита. The dissertation might simply be
marked by the examiner(s) together with the student’s examination papers.
However, at other institutions, there is a defence where students defend their
dissertations.
Another possibility is to use the expression oral (examination) or viva, as in
the case of thesis, but this has various disadvantages. Firstly, an oral examination
(or viva) is not necessarily conducted like a защита. Secondly, it is not clear how
to specify the idea of a first degree. Graduation/final oral (examination) or viva is
possible, but this does not suggest the discussion of a dissertation or paper.
7
Moreover, it would be better to keep the expression graduation/final oral
(examination) as a translation of the oral part of the государственный экзамен.
In view of these complications, there seems to be no good alternative to the
literal translation defence of one’s dissertation or graduation paper/project.
Remember, however, that this may not be entirely clear to English-speakers without
an explanation.
окончить (университет/институт)
Graduation (from a university/college) can generally be used as a translation
in formal or semi-formal style. In non-formal style, however, some other version is
more appropriate, for example, to take one's degree/finals. In cases where the fact
of having passed the examinations, etc. is not the central idea, English people often
use the verb to be with at, or to go with to.
e. g. He {was at / went to} London University. Here it is assumed that he
graduated (and some people who did not actually graduate from university but
attended a higher education institution and left before their finals may use the
phrase truthfully, yet imply successful completion of their studies).
ученая степень
Higher degree is probably the best translation.
Степень кандидата наук and кандидат наук are as a rule best translated
literally as: degree of candidate of sciences or candidate's degree (less formal)
and candidate of sciences.
Since these terms do not exist in English, and the word candidate has a more
general meaning (that of a person applying for a job or position, or taking an
examination), it will be necessary in many cases to explain to English people that a
Russian candidate's degree is approximately equivalent to an English PhD (or
doctorate). It may be justified in some cases, for example, when talking to English
or American visitors, to use the word doctorate and doctor for convenience.
However, if there are people present with the degree of доктор наук, such use will
obscure the difference between the two Russian degrees.
When using the literal translation candidate of science, it may be necessary to
explain also that science does not refer to the sciences in the modern English sense.
For example, the British educationalist N. Grant, writing about the Russian degrees
of candidate and doctor of science found it necessary to explain to his English
readers that "in spite of their titles, these degrees are not limited to the scientific
field".
Another useful alternative would be to use the transliterated form and italicise
the word to indicate that it is a foreign expression (kandidat).
Степень доктора наук and доктор наук can be translated as: degree of
doctor or doctorate and doctor (of sciences). However, it should be explained that
although it is this is awarded for a thesis, it is not necessarily the same as an English
or, in particular, American doctorate, to which it is more advanced.
When translating the names of particular degrees, it seems on the whole
preferable to omit the word science, although it is not necessarily incorrect to
include it.
8
e. g. кандидат/доктор филологических наук -candidate/doctor of
philology
The literal translation philology is preferable here to arts or any of the other
words discussed in connection with the translation of филологический факультет.
Neither candidate/doctor of arts nor candidate/doctor of languages and literature
are English terms, and in any case the words candidate and doctor are themselves
literal translations here. However, candidate/doctor of philology will probably mean
nothing to an English-speaker unfamiliar with the Russian system unless some
explanation is given.
кандидат/доктор философских наук - candidate/doctor of philosophy
It may be necessary to explain that ‘doctor of philosophy’ is not the same as the
English degree of that name.
кандидат/доктор психологических наук - candidate/doctor of psychology;
кандидат/доктор педагогических наук - candidate/doctor of education;
Pedagogy or pedagogical science is possible, although very learned, and not
so easily understood.
кандидат/доктор юридических наук - candidate/doctor of law;
кандидат/доктор экономических наук - candidate/doctor of economics.
The name of the other degrees can be translated in a similar way.
диссертация
The usual British English equivalent is thesis, which is applied to both the
Master's degree and the doctorate. Dissertation is used either as a general term, to
denote any extended written treatment of a subject, or more specifically, to denote
something of a lower academic standard than a thesis, especially at undergraduate
level.
In American English, however, dissertation is used for a doctorate, whereas
thesis denotes something of a lower standard, for example, for a Master's degree.
защита диссертации, защищать диссертацию.
In the United Kingdom, the thesis defence is called a viva voce (Latin for "by
live voice") examination (vivafor short). Oral (examination) could also be used as

equivalent translations, as could defend and defence. However, in some cases, one
can avoid difficulties by re-phrasing the sentence, e.g.
В 1995 году он защитил кандидатскую/докторскую диссертацию.
In 1995 he was awarded his candidate's/doctor's degree.
наука
When наука refers only to the natural sciences, the word science can be used
without ambiguity. The first meaning of science given in the COD is “knowledge”.
However, this is marked archaic. The second is: “systematic and formulated
knowledge (natural, social, etc.); pursuit of this or principles regulating such
pursuit”. This meaning coincides with that of the Russian наука. However, there is
a marked difference in usage between the two words; whereas in Russian наука is
used in this sense equally with or without a qualifying adjective or phrase, in
English science in this sense is nearly always qualified.
e.g. natural science, linguistic science, social science, medical science, the
science of language, the exact sciences
9
When used alone, science usually has the third meaning listed in the COD,
viz: “the physical and natural science collectively”. The example given to illustrate
this is: Science now shares the curriculum with literature, history and maths.
This is the meaning which science has in the name faculty of science and in
the title Department for Education and Science. It corresponds in Russian not to
наука but to естественные науки.
In education, science or the sciences are often contrasted with art, or the arts.
Not all науки can be translated in this way. We do not usually speak of
economic sciences, historical sciences, geographical science, philosophical science,
pedagogical science, philological science, psychological science, although we may
say, for example: the science of economy/history, etc. in the sense of a systematic
study based on facts. The subjects listed above are usually referred to simply as
economics, history, geography, philosophy, education (science)/pedagogy,
philology / (comparative & historical) linguistics, psychology, education.
The branch of наука may be specified in other ways, not only by an adjective
placed before the word itself, and here also science may be used as a translation,
e.g.:
Лингвистика - наука о языке. Linguistics is the science of language.
Социология - относительно молодая наука. Sociology is a relatively
young science.
When наука is used in a general sense, as in the expressions:
заниматься наукой
наука и жизнь
посвятить себя науке
отрасль науки
the question of translation is more complex, because there is no corresponding
general term in modern English. Science has acquired a narrower application, and
no other word has taken its place as a general term. Therefore the translation of
наука depends on the aspect expressed in the given situation, the usual possibilities
being research, scholarship, learning and knowledge.
Research is the most appropriate when we mean the carrying out of systemic
investigations in some field. It is the best translation in such cases as
to do research
to be engaged in research
to devote oneself to research
Academic work is sometimes used in such cases, but this is less exact as a
translation of наука, because it often includes not only research but teaching in a
higher educational establishment.
Scholarship can be used to denote research, especially in the arts, or
humanities, and could therefore replace research in the example to be engaged in
research if the situation is appropriate. Note, however, that scholarship is also a
translation of стипендия.
Learning is a possible translation in the example:
e. learning and life
10