Engines of Discovery : A Century of Particle Accelerators (Revised and Expanded Edition)

281 Pages·2014·121.555 MB·English

by  Andrew Sessler, Edmund Wilson

Engines of
Discovery
A Century of Particle Accelerators
Revised and Expanded Edition
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Engines of
Discovery
A Century of Particle Accelerators
Revised and Expanded Edition
Andrew Sessler
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA
Edmund Wilson
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI
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Published by
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover picture: Fernand Léger, “Circular Composition, 1928”. © ADAGP, Paris, 2013
ENGINES OF DISCOVERY
A Century of Particle Accelerators
Revised and Expanded Edition
Copyright © 2014 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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ISBN 978-981-4417-18-1
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Preface
Much of the raw material for this book was collected also very grateful to Jose Alonso, André Anders, André
from the work of others, sometimes from carefully con- Barlow, Joe Chew, Tim Houck and Stefano De Santos
structed review documents, sometimes from books, and for their hard work in correcting the proofs. In regard
often simply from memories of conversations with our to the second edition, Kenneth Long, Kurt Hubner,
colleagues over the last 50 years. This is not a very tech- Bob Bingham, Alex Chao, John Galayda, Grahame
nical book but we hope that we have recorded as much Rees, Joerg Rossbach, Peter Seidl, José Alonso, Robert
as possible of the history and the applications of particle Hamm, William Barletta, Sergei Naigaitsev, Paul Emma,
accelerators — the Engines of Discovery — as well as Wim Leemans, Jean-Pierre Revol, Suzy Sheehy, and
the lives of those who built them, before these matters Ferdinand Willeke read through drafts and made many
are either forgotten or lost to living memory. valuable suggestions. We wish to thank Monika Wilson
This work is a personal perspective and, apart from for carefully working through the whole manuscript and
the kind of errors that are inevitable in printing, we Joe Chew for many weeks of painstaking proof reading
must surely have omitted incidents and personalities and a multitude of corrections and additions which
that the reader would have liked to see included. greatly enhanced our raw material.
The book contains many sidebars — biographical We are thankful to the Lawrence Berkeley National
notes and descriptions of laboratories as well as tech- Laboratory and to CERN for supporting our activities.
nical concepts. Writing the biographical sidebars would AMS in particular would like to thank Lawrence
not have been possible without the generous help of our Berkeley National Laboratory and their principal sponsor,
colleagues. Nevertheless, lack of space and the difficulty the US Department of Energy’s Office of Science, for
in tracking down reliable sources of information com- encouragement and assistance in this endeavor.
pelled us to make some rather arbitrary and subjective Accelerator science and engineering — the ability to
choices. We had to leave out many accomplished indi- handle particle and photon beams — has developed far
viduals who made important contributions to the field, beyond what anyone could have imagined in 1900. This
and regrettably risk disappointing some of our personal book is dedicated to the physicists and engineers who,
friends. The names of those who have been left out may over a period of 100 years, made possible electrostatic
be found in the Appendices, which include a list of accelerators, the cyclotron, the betatron, the linac, the
those who have been awarded prizes by various profes- synchrotron, collider, and other machines and applied
sional bodies; others appear in our list of principal them to an unbelievable diverse range of uses. These
publications. The Appendices also include a glossary accelerators have discovered new forms of matter and
of commonly used technical terms and abbreviations, they have changed our lives for the better through their
together with a bibliography listing general texts, more- many applications.
technical accelerator books, seminal publications, and
some web addresses. Ted Wilson, Oxford
David Whittum and Dieter Möhl deserve our Andrew Sessler, Berkeley
thanks for reading through an early draft of the first May 2013
edition and making many useful suggestions and we are
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Contents
Preface v
Introduction xi
Chapter I. Electrostatic Accelerators 1
I.1  Scientific Motivation  1
I.2  Voltage Multiplying Columns  2
I.3  Silk Belts   5
I.4  Wisconsin Advances  6
I.5  Tandems   7
I.6  Commercial Production of Electrostatic Accelerators   8
I.7  Applications of Electrostatic Machines   9
Chapter II. Cyclotrons 10
II.1  The Anatomy of a Discovery   10
II.2  Lawrence and the Early Cyclotrons   12
II.3  Transverse Focusing   17
II.4  Relativistic Limitation   17
II.5  Phase Focusing and the Synchrocyclotron   19
II.6  FFAG   19
II.7  Spiral Sector Cyclotrons  23
II.8  Modern Cyclotrons   24
Chapter III. Linear Accelerators 25
III.1  Science Motivation — an Idea in Search of a Technology   25
III.2  The Early Linear Accelerators at Berkeley   27
III.3  Proton Linacs   27
III.4  Electron Linacs   32
III.5 Heavy Ion Linacs — a Rich Field of Research   37
III.6  Induction Linacs   41
III.7.  Other Proposed Uses of Induction Linacs   42
Chapter IV. Betatrons 43
IV.1  Early History  44
IV.2  The Kerst Betatron  45
IV.3  The Wideroe Betatron — Second Attempt  46
IV.4  The Years after World War II  47
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Chapter V. Synchrotrons 49
V.1  Science Motivation  49
V.2  The Early History of the Synchrotron  49
V.3  First Synchrotron  50
V.4  Electron Synchrotrons  50
V.5  Early Proton Synchrotrons  50
V.6  Nimrod and Phasotron  54
V.7  Strong Focusing  54
V.8  Brookhaven’s AGS and CERN’s PS  58
V.9  Fermilab and SPS  61
V.10  Superconducting Magnets  68
V.11  Injecting and Extracting Beams  69
Chapter VI. Colliders 72
VI.1  Science Motivation  72
VI.2  Principles  72
VI.3  Electron–Electron Colliders  76
VI.4  Electron–Positron Colliders  77
VI.5  Superconducting Cavities  83
VI.6  Proton–Proton Colliders  87
VI.7  Polarization  91
VI.8  Proton–Antiproton Colliders  93
VI.9  Lithium Lens  93
VI.10  Beam Cooling  96
VI.11  Asymmetric Collider Rings  101
VI.12  Heavy-Ion Colliders  102
Chapter VII. Neutrino Super Beams, Neutrino Factories and Muon Colliders 106
VII.1  Neutrino Physics and Neutrino Super Beams  106
VII.2  Neutrino Beams  106
VII.3  Neutrino Factories  107
VII.4  Muon Colliders  110
VII.5  Alternative Muon Technologies  112
VII.6  Experimental R&D for Neutrino Factories and Muon Colliders  112
Chapter VIII. Detectors 113
VIII.1  Early Primitive Detectors  113
VIII.2  Scintillators, Photomultipliers and Cerenkov Counters  113
VIII.3  Collisions in Three Dimensions  114
VIII.4  A Modern Detector  118
VIII.5  Digital X-Ray Imaging  121
VIII.6  Detection Techniques for Synchrotron Radiation Sources  122
Chapter IX. High-Energy and Nuclear Physics 123
IX.1  Leading up to the LHC  127
IX.2  The Large Hadron Collider (LHC)  128
IX.3  The Origins of Linear Colliders  131
IX.4  Future Linear Colliders  132
IX.5  The Proposed International Linear Collider (ILC)  136
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IX.6  Two-Beam Accelerators and the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC)  137
IX.7  High Luminosity Electron Rings  140
IX.8  Nuclear Physics and Astrophysics  140
IX.9  Rare Ion Facilities  141
IX.10  Anti-Hydrogen  143
Chapter X. Synchrotron Radiation Sources 146
X.1  Scientific Motivation  146
X.2  Principles and Early History  147
X.3  The First Observation of Synchrotron Radiation  149
X.4  First Generation Synchrotron Sources  149
X.5  Second Generation Synchrotron Sources  150
X.6  Third Generation Synchrotron Sources  150
X.7  Various Approaches towards a Fourth Generation Radiation Source  155
X.8  Free Electron Laser Facilities for Sub-Nanometer X-Rays  158
Chapter XI. Isotope Production and Cancer Therapy Accelerators 166
XI.1  Introduction   166
XI.2  The Origins and History of Medical Accelerators  166
XI.3  Isotopes for Medicine  169
XI.4  External Particle Beam Therapy  170
XI.5  X-Ray Therapy  174
XI.6  Proton Therapy  177
XI.7  Ion Therapy  179
IV.8  Other Therapies   183
XI.9  Further Comments  183
Chapter XII. Spallation Neutron Sources 184
XII.1  Introduction  184
XII.2  Neutron Scattering   185
XII.3  Brief History of Spallation Sources  186
XII.4  ISIS and SINQ   186
XII.5  The SNS and J-PARC  188
XII.6  Spallation Source Target Stations   189
XII.7  The Future   189
Chapter XIII. Accelerators in Industry and Elsewhere 191
XIII.1  Introduction  191
XIII.2  Ion Implantation in Semiconductor Manufacture  191
XIII.3  Surface Treatment with Ion Beams  192
XIII.4  Precision Machining and Membrane Manufacture  192
XIII.5  Industrial Processes Using Electron Accelerators  192
XIII.6  Industrial Process Monitoring with Neutrons  195
XIII.7  Types of Accelerators Used in Industry  196
Chapter XIV. National Security 201
XIV.1  Calutrons   201
XIV.2  The Materials Testing Accelerator (MTA)  202
XIV.3  FXR and DARHT  203
Contents  ix
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